Scientific Research Journal
type: channel
description: The Scientific Research Journal (SRJ) (ISSN: 1675-7009, e-ISSN: 2289-649X) is an open-access international refereed journal. Scientific Research Journal will be accepting research papers in material science and technology in various fields of research that include (but not limited to) civil engineering, electrical engineering, mechanical engineering, chemical engineering, nanomaterials, energy, catalyst, environmental science, pharmacy, medicine and applied sciences. PUBLICATION IS FREE OF CHARGE for regular issues. SRJ is indexed in Google Scholar, MyJurnal, MyCite. CLICK HERE TO SUBMIT MANUSCRIPT
publisher: UiTM Press
language: en
publication name: Scientific Research Journal
issn: 2289-649X
items: Study of the Structural Property and Biodegradation Relationship of Regenerated Cellulose Nanofibre/Glycerol Laminated Films Incorporating Recycled PLA Waste
items: Recovery of Graphite from Industrial Waste by Sulphuric Leaching Method
items: Elastic Studies of Cerium Doped Zinc Borotellurite Glass
items: Non-Invasive FTIR Spectroscopy for Photostability Analysis of Commercial Sunscreens with a Conceptual Proposal for Lignin-Based Enhancements
items: Environmental and Economic Benefits of a Buildable Solar Oven Design: A Sustainable Cooking Approach using Renewable Energy
items: Optimization of Hyaluronic Acid Extraction from Eggshell Membrane using Ultrasonic-Assisted Enzyme Hydrolysis
items: First-Principles Study to Investigate the Structural, Electronic, Magnetic, and Mechanical Properties of Sn-Based Hydride Perovskites XSnH3(X = Li, Na, K) for Hydrogen Storage Application
items: 3R Practices and Solid Waste Composition among High Income Residence in Desa Pinggiran Putra, Kajang, Malaysia
items: Exploring The Effect of Devulcanized Nitrile Butadiene Rubber Glove (dNBRg) on the Cure Characteristics and Mechanical Properties of Virgin Nitrile Butadiene Rubber (vNBR) Blends
items: Biodegradable Plastics from Cellulose Extracted from Caulerpa Lentilifera and Sugarcane Baggasse for a Sustainable Environment
items: The Influence of Weight and Thickness on Permeability and Moisture Management of Knitted Fabrics
items: Effect of La3+ and Ba2+ Substitution on Structural and Electrical Properties of Charge Ordered Divalent-Doped Sm0.5Ca0.5MnO3 Manganite
items: Effect of Deposition Temperature on The Structural and Crystallinity Properties of Self-Catalyzed Growth Indium Tin Oxide (ITO) Thin Film Using CVD Technique
items: Effect of Solvents on ZIF-8 and its Adsorption Efficiency for Norfloxacin
items: Preparation and Characterization of Pectin-Starch Hydrogel Modified with Urea and Lactic Acid-Based Deep Eutectic Solvent for Soil Water Retention
items: Effect of Heat Treatments on Physico-mechanical Properties of Kelempayan Wood
items: Elucidation Study of Bioavailable Potential Among Plant-based Silver Nanoparticles Fabricated from Several Local Fruit Peels
items: Development of Serum Stick from Medusomyces gisevii (kombucha) to Restore Facial Skin Assets
items: Elucidating the Effects of Stirring Time on Chemical and Electrochemical Properties of Polyaniline Salt Dispersion in Tetrahydrofuran
items: Tensile and Thermal Properties of Natural Rubber/Ethylene Propylene Rubber Waste/Linear Low-density Polyethylene Blends
items: Effect of Impregnation Temperature on Monoethanolamine-Kenaf Biosorbent for CO2 Adsorption from Gas Mixture
items: Enhanced Mechanical Properties and Biodegradability of Polyvinyl Alcohol and Starch Filled Water Hyacinth Fibre Biofilm
items: Properties of Magnesium-Zinc Graphene Composites
items: Mechanical Properties of Unsaturated Polyester Composites Reinforced with Acid-Treated Palm Kernel Shell at Various Filler Loadings
items: Antioxidant Potential of Curcuma xanthorrhiza -based Serum Stick
items: Recent Malaysian Food Waste Generation Trends, Enacted Policies and Challenges in Food Waste Management
items: Spatial Distribution of Microplastics Abundance Along Selected Beaches in Kelantan, Malaysia
items: Performance of Spent Iron-Based Catalyst in the Photo Assisted Electrochemical System for the Removal of Methylene Blue (MB) Dye
items: Characterization, Physicomechanical and Corrosion Properties of Reinforced Microcrystalline Cellulose Treated Silane Unsaturated Polyester Primer Coatings.
items: Effect of Different Preparation Approaches on Pt-Modified TiO2/g-C3N4 for Effective Photocatalytic Degradation of RR4 Dye Under Visible Light

Study of the Structural Property and Biodegradation Relationship of Regenerated Cellulose Nanofibre/Glycerol Laminated Films Incorporating Recycled PLA Waste
type: item
description: The increasing generation of plastic waste from packaging and additive manufacturing, particularly polylactic acid (PLA), necessitates sustainable recycling strategies. This study reports the fabrication of regenerated cellulose nanofibre (RCNF) composite films incorporating recycled PLA waste from 3D printing and glycerol as a plasticiser for sustainable packaging applications. Cellulose nanofibres were dissolved using a sodium hydroxide-urea (NaOH/urea) solvent system and regenerated via a freeze–thaw process, followed by chloroform-dissolved PLA waste phase and lamination with a glycerol-containing coagulants at varying concentrations. The structural properties of the fabricated RCNF/glycerol/PLA films were thoroughly analysed. The Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) analysis demonstrated the existence of intermolecular interactions among cellulose, glycerol, and PLA. Concurrently, the higher glycerol content has enhanced the flexibility and water uptake of the film produced, reaching over 300% at 20% glycerol loading. However, the incorporation of PLA into the film composite has reduced water absorption due to the polymer cellulose chain entanglement. Meanwhile, the soil burial tests revealed that higher glycerol concentrations slowed biodegradation by reduction of the weight loss. In contrast, the increase in the incubation temperatures has intensified the weight loss where 50 °C incubation demonstrated higher weight loss percentage. However, these films showed increased thermal decomposition, suggesting enhanced processability under heat. The findings highlight the potential of upcycled CNF/PLA/glycerol films as an environmentally friendly alternative for packaging applications, contributing to circular material use and reduced ecological impact.
subject: Bioplastics/Biocomposites
  topic: section
subject: Additive manufacturing waste
  topic: keywords
subject: bioplastic
  topic: keywords
subject: flexibility
  topic: keywords
subject: lamination
  topic: keywords
subject: plasticity
  topic: keywords
creator: Hatika Kaco
creator: Noorul Jannah Aizul Hussin
creator: Syahidatul Nadhilah Shah Lail
creator: Mohd Shaiful Sajab
creator: Nuradlyna Safyah Mohd Rozi
creator: Muhammad Naqib Hamdan
creator: Amir Mustaqim Mohd Naim
creator: Muizzuddin Muhammad Nazri
rights: Copyright (c) 2026 Hatika Kaco, Noorul Jannah Aizul Hussin, Syahidatul Nadhilah Shah Lail, Mohd Shaiful Sajab, Nuradlyna Safyah Mohd Rozi, Muhammad Naqib Hamdan, Amir Mustaqim Mohd Naim, Muizzuddin Muhammad Nazri https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
date: 2026-03-01
publication date: 2026-03-01
starting page: 54
ending page: 69
doi: 10.24191/srj.v23i1.41616

Recovery of Graphite from Industrial Waste by Sulphuric Leaching Method
type: item
description: Limited availability of graphite and a complex purification process, posing challenges for the large-scale production of graphene. Graphite is one of the components in the resulting waste slag produced during steel-making. The content of graphite in industrial waste was determined, with a view to reuse waste slag as the raw material in the synthesis of graphene and graphene oxide by sulphuric leaching method. The leaching tests have been carried out with 20% of H2SO4 at room temperature and different stirring speed and time. Techniques used were X-Ray Diffraction (XRD), Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR), Scanning Electron Microscopes coupled with Energy Disperse X-ray (SEM-EDX) and Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA). The average concentration of graphite in the waste before leaching was around 15%, with the yield of carbon recovered after leaching more than 50%. These results confirmed the ability to recover graphite from industrial waste.
subject: Environmental Chemistry
  topic: section
subject: Graphite
  topic: keywords
subject: scanning electron microscopy
  topic: keywords
subject: X-ray diffraction
  topic: keywords
subject: industrial waste
  topic: keywords
subject: leaching
  topic: keywords
creator: Wan Nur Atikah Binti Haji Wan Nafi
creator: Nabilah Akemal Muhd Zailani
creator: Siti Zulaikha Mohd Yusof
creator: Badrul Mohamed Jan
creator: Muhamad Fazly Abdul Patah
rights: Copyright (c) 2026 Atikah Wan Nafi, Nabilah Akemal Muhd Zailani, Siti Zulaikha Mohd Yusof, Badrul Mohamed Jan, Muhamad Fazly Abdul Patah https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
date: 2026-03-01
publication date: 2026-03-01
starting page: 80
ending page: 93
doi: 10.24191/rj.v23i1.43505

Elastic Studies of Cerium Doped Zinc Borotellurite Glass
type: item
description: Glass materials play a crucial role in modern applications due to their favorable properties relative to crystalline materials, including optical transparency, high durability, corrosion resistance, and resistance to ionizing radiation. Moreover, these properties can be further modified by doping rare-earth ions into the glass structure. In this study, cerium is chosen to be added into zinc borotellurite glasses as it can effectively reduce the effect of ionizing radiation such as gamma-ray compared to the other types of rare earth oxides. The glass samples with composition of {[(TeO2)0.7(B2O3)0.3]0.7[(ZnO]0.3}1-x{CeO2}x (where x ranged from 0.00 to 0.05 mol) were synthesized using melt-quenching technique. The influence that cerium oxide has on the glass system was investigated by studying its elastic properties via ultrasonic pulse-echo technique. The findings revealed that all elastic moduli had an increasing trend, approximately 32-37% while the other elastic parameters possessed some variations with the dopant addition. The high elastic moduli (L=77.59 GPa, G=24.16 GPa, E=61.55 GPa and K=45.39 GPa) revealed that the insertion of CeO2 led to the strengthening of the glass network which in turn produced glasses with higher rigidity. These findings highlight the significance of this study, demonstrating the glass’s strong potential for applications in telecommunications and radiation shielding.
subject: Ceramics and Glass
  topic: section
subject: Tellurite glass
  topic: keywords
subject: Cerium
  topic: keywords
subject: Elastic properties
  topic: keywords
subject: Zinc
  topic: keywords
subject: Borotellurite
  topic: keywords
creator: Hasnimulyati Laoding
creator: Azuraida Amat
creator: Siti Nasuha Mohd Rafien
creator: Azhan Hashim@Ismail
creator: Nur Baizura Mohamed
creator: Ishak Mansor
rights: Copyright (c) 2026 Hasnimulyati Laoding https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
date: 2026-03-01
publication date: 2026-03-01
starting page: 22
ending page: 34
doi: 10.24191/srj.v23i1.41624

Non-Invasive FTIR Spectroscopy for Photostability Analysis of Commercial Sunscreens with a Conceptual Proposal for Lignin-Based Enhancements
type: item
description: The stability of commercial sunscreen formulations during prolonged ultraviolet (UV) exposure is a crucial factor influencing their protective effectiveness and consumer compliance. This work utilises a rapid, non-invasive analytical method employing Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy to examine the chemical properties and photostability of sunscreen lotions with different Sun Protection Factors (SPF 15, 30, and 50). Spectral analyses during regulated UV exposure durations (3–6 hours) demonstrate specific degradation pathways, characterised by diminished transmittance of O–H and N–H groups and heightened signals in the C–O, C–O–C, and C=N stretching regions signifying oxidative degradation, photofragmentation, and molecular reconfigurations of active compounds. These spectral variations are consistent with oxidative degradation, photofragmentation, and molecular reconfiguration of active ingredients. Based on these observed degradation pathways, a conceptual encapsulation strategy employing methylated and syringyl-type lignin derivatives is proposed as a potential means to mitigate UV-induced instability. Owing to their aromatic structure and reported UV-absorbing properties, such biopolymeric materials may offer a promising route for enhancing the photostability and durability of sunscreen actives, although experimental validation was not performed in this work. Overall, the study establishes FTIR spectroscopy as an effective tool for real-time, non-invasive assessment of sunscreen photodegradation and provides a framework for the future development of lignin-based stabilisation strategies in cosmetic and UV-protective materials.
subject: Polymer and Composite/Textile
  topic: section
subject: FTIR spectroscopy
  topic: keywords
subject: SPF (Sun Protection Factor)
  topic: keywords
subject: UV degradation
  topic: keywords
subject: Lignin derivatives
  topic: keywords
creator: Farhana Othman
creator: Nur Izzeti Amirah Sobri
creator: Nur Izzatul Aina Johari
creator: Nurin Adawiyah Azizi
creator: Yasmin Marissa Yusni
rights: Copyright (c) 2026 Farhana Othman, Nur Izzeti Amirah Sobri, Nur Izzatul Aina Johari, Nurin Adawiyah Azizi, Yasmin Marissa Yusni https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
date: 2026-03-01
publication date: 2026-03-01
starting page: 70
ending page: 79
doi: 10.24191/srj.v23i1.43063

Environmental and Economic Benefits of a Buildable Solar Oven Design: A Sustainable Cooking Approach using Renewable Energy
type: item
description: This study investigates the design and performance of a low-cost, buildable solar oven as a sustainable and eco-friendly cooking solution. Unlike many existing studies that focus on engineered or commercially optimized solar cookers, this work addresses the gap in simple, easily assembled designs made entirely from recyclable materials suitable for outdoor and recreational use. The solar oven was constructed using cardboard, aluminum foil, black spray paint and clear plastic wrap, and tested through four experimental trials under direct sunlight using common food items such as eggs, sausages and marshmallows. Results indicated a maximum temperature of 71 °C after 90 minutes, sufficient for basic cooking without reliance on non-renewable energy sources. Environmental factors such as solar intensity and ambient temperature influenced performance. The findings demonstrate both the environmental benefits through zero-emission cooking and the economic advantages of utilizing inexpensive materials, highlighting the potential of this solar oven as an accessible tool for sustainable outdoor cooking applications.
subject: General Science
  topic: section
subject: Solar oven
  topic: keywords
subject: sustainable cooking
  topic: keywords
subject: eco-friendly design
  topic: keywords
subject: renewable energy
  topic: keywords
creator: Azliana Ramli
creator: Nur Dini Zaisham
creator: Nurul Razana Ahmad Kamil
creator: Farhana Nabila Ridzuan
creator: Fatin Nur Amalina Lazamri
rights: Copyright (c) 2026 Azliana Ramli, Nur Dini Zaisham, Nurul Razana Ahmad Kamil, Farhana Nabila Ridzuan, Fatin Nur Amalina Lazamri https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
date: 2026-03-01
publication date: 2026-03-01
starting page: 13
ending page: 21
doi: 10.24191/srj.v23i1.40877

Optimization of Hyaluronic Acid Extraction from Eggshell Membrane using Ultrasonic-Assisted Enzyme Hydrolysis
type: item
description: Eggshell membrane (ESM) from eggshell waste is a valuable source of hyaluronic acid (HA), a biomaterial that is in high demand in the medical and cosmetic fields. However, the extraction of HA from ESM using ultrasonic-assisted enzymatic hydrolysis has not yet been optimized. The study aimed to optimize the extraction of HA from ESM by using papain through the proposed method. The optimization process was conducted using the Box-Behnken design within the framework of Response Surface Methodology (RSM). The antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activity of HA were determined by DPPH radical scavenging, ferric reducing antioxidant potential (FRAP) and lipoxygenase inhibitor screening assays, respectively. The optimum processing conditions that contributed to the high content of HA (5.062%) were achieved at a hydrolysis time of 3.1 hours, an enzyme concentration of 9.7%, a pH of 7.5 and an ultrasonic treatment time of 2.1 minutes. The analysis of variance showed that the enzyme concentration was an important factor in the extraction of HA from ESM. In addition, the HA extract showed acceptable result of anti-inflammatory properties (9.4104%) suggesting its importance in attenuating inflammatory responses. These results indicated that ESM is a promising and sustainable source for HA production with desirable bioactivities. Future research should explore the mechanistic actions of HA thereby enriching our understanding of its therapeutic potential and expanding its commercial applications.
subject: Biomaterials
  topic: section
subject: Eggshell membrane
  topic: keywords
subject: Hyaluronic acid
  topic: keywords
subject: Enzymatic hydrolysis
  topic: keywords
subject: Antioxidant activity
  topic: keywords
subject: Anti-inflammatory activity
  topic: keywords
creator: Siti Nor Azlina Abd Rashid
creator: Muhammad Zulhelmi Nazri
creator: Rui-Fang Wong
creator: Kian-Kai Cheng
creator: Nor Zalina Othman
creator: Hong-Yeng Leong
rights: Copyright (c) 2026 Siti Nor Azlina Abd Rashid, Muhammad Zulhelmi Nazri, Rui-Fang Wong, Kian-Kai Cheng, Nor Zalina Othman, Hong-Yeng Leong https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
date: 2026-03-01
publication date: 2026-03-01
starting page: 1
ending page: 12
doi: 10.24191/srj.v23i1.43505

First-Principles Study to Investigate the Structural, Electronic, Magnetic, and Mechanical Properties of Sn-Based Hydride Perovskites XSnH3(X = Li, Na, K) for Hydrogen Storage Application
type: item
description: This work presents a first-principles density functional theory (DFT) investigation of the structural, electronic, magnetic, and mechanical properties of cubic hydride perovskites XSnH3 (X = Li, Na, K) for hydrogen storage applications. All compounds crystallize in the Pm3m (#221) structure with negative cohesive energies, confirming thermodynamic stability. The optimized lattice constants increase systematically from LiSnH3 (4.20 Å) to NaSnH3 (4.26 Å) and KSnH3 (4.35 Å). Electronic band structures and density of states reveal metallic behavior with 0.00 eV band gaps, while spin-polarized calculations indicate antiferromagnetic ordering. Mechanical analysis shows that KSnH3 is the hardest compound, NaSnH₃ exhibits the greatest toughness, and LiSnH3 is relatively brittle. Gravimetric hydrogen storage capacities were calculated as 2.35% (LiSnH3), 2.09% (NaSnH3), and 1.88% (KSnH3). Among them, LiSnH3 demonstrates the highest potential as a solid-state hydrogen storage medium. These findings provide new insights into the structure–property relationships of Sn-based hydride perovskites and establish their promise as candidates for next-generation hydrogen storage technologies.
subject: Materials for Energy Storage
  topic: section
subject: First principles
  topic: keywords
subject: Density functional theory
  topic: keywords
subject: Hydrogen storage
  topic: keywords
creator: Nur Aqilah Zamri
creator: Ahmad Fairoz Aziz
creator: Nur Hafiz Hussin
creator: Mohd Hazrie Samat
creator: Mohamad Fariz Mohamad Taib
creator: Oskar Hasdinor Hassan
rights: Copyright (c) 2026 Nur Aqilah Zamri, Ahmad Fairoz Aziz, Nur Hafiz Hussin, Mohd Hazrie Samat, Mohamad Fariz Mohamad Taib, Oskar Hasdinor Hassan https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
date: 2026-03-01
publication date: 2026-03-01
starting page: 35
ending page: 53
doi: 10.24191/srj.v23i1.41628

3R Practices and Solid Waste Composition among High Income Residence in Desa Pinggiran Putra, Kajang, Malaysia
type: item
description: Due to the exponential growth in the human population over the last few years, waste has been accumulating rapidly. To lessen the amount of waste disposed in landfills, it is crucial to understand the importance of waste separation and recycling. This study examines 3R practices and solid waste composition among high-income households in Fasa 1 Desa Pinggiran Putra, Kajang, Malaysia, involving 12 sampled residences. The primary waste component was food waste (44%), followed by others (14%), sanitary pads and diapers (14%), plastics (11%), paper (7%), glass (7%), and metal waste (3%). Within the high-income household group studied, variations in waste composition were observed, reflecting differences in consumption patterns and household practices. Despite the presence of recyclable materials in the waste stream, most households reported infrequent use of formal recycling centres, indicating limited participation in organised recycling activities. Effective waste segregation practices were observed in some households, influencing waste composition. Socioeconomic factors were found to influence waste management behaviours, highlighting differences in waste segregation practices among households. Bridging the gap between awareness and behavioural change in waste management, particularly in relation to socioeconomic influences, remains a key challenge for improving waste management strategies in Malaysia.
subject: General Science
  topic: section
subject: Solid waste composition
  topic: keywords
subject: 3R practices
  topic: keywords
subject: income class
  topic: keywords
subject: socioeconomic impact in 3R
  topic: keywords
creator: Nur Nabihah Azmi Azrin
creator: Dzulaikha Khairuddin
creator: Juliana Martin
rights: Copyright (c) 2026 Nur Nabihah Azmi, Dzulaikha Khairuddin, Juliana Martin https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
date: 2026-03-01
publication date: 2026-03-01
starting page: 94
ending page: 108
doi: 10.24191/srj.v23i1.43814

Exploring The Effect of Devulcanized Nitrile Butadiene Rubber Glove (dNBRg) on the Cure Characteristics and Mechanical Properties of Virgin Nitrile Butadiene Rubber (vNBR) Blends
type: item
description: The COVID-19 pandemic led to a significant surge in the use of disposable nitrile rubber gloves, raising environmental concerns due to the large volume of glove waste generated. Devulcanization presents a sustainable approach to addressing this issue by converting waste nitrile gloves into a value-added material known as devulcanized nitrile rubber glove (dNBRg), which can be utilized as a blend component. However, the awareness and application of dNBRg in rubber-related fields remain limited. This study investigates the effects of incorporating dNBRg at varying loadings (0–100 parts per hundred rubbers, phr) into virgin nitrile butadiene rubber (vNBR), with a focus on curing behavior and mechanical properties such as tensile strength and abrasion resistance. The blending of vNBR and dNBRg, along with compounding additives, was carried out using a two-roll mill. The results revealed that minimum torque (ML) increased with the addition of dNBRg, attributed to its higher viscosity, which is influenced by residual additives from both the original glove formulation and the new compounding ingredients. Maximum torque (MH) decreased at lower dNBRg loadings (20–40 phr) but began to increase at higher loadings (above 40 phr). Scorch time (ts2) remained relatively constant, while cure time (t90) increased at higher dNBRg contents (70 and 80 phr), suggesting a slower vulcanization process. Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) analysis showed no new absorption peaks, indicating no significant chemical changes in the blend. Mechanically, tensile strength decreased with increasing dNBRg content due to a heterogeneous crosslink structure, where weakly crosslinked regions were more susceptible to chain slippage and microcrack formation under stress, leading to early failure. In contrast, elongation at break, modulus at 100% strain (M100), and volume loss all increased with higher dNBRg loadings, likely due to the increased crosslink concentration and non-uniform crosslink density wit…
subject: Polymer and Composite/Textile
  topic: section
subject: Devulcanized Nitrile Butadiene Rubber Glove
  topic: keywords
subject: Devulcanization
  topic: keywords
subject: virgin nitrile butadiene rubber
  topic: keywords
subject: mechanical properties
  topic: keywords
creator: Siti Nur Liyana Mamauod
creator: Nik Noor Idayu Nik Ibrahim
creator: Farzana Amirah Khairudin
creator: Noorfazila Amin
rights: Copyright (c) 2025 Siti Nur Liyana Mamauod, Nik Noor Idayu Nik Ibrahim, Farzana Amirah Khairudin, Noorfazila Amin https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
date: 2025-08-26
publication date: 2025-08-26
starting page: 117
ending page: 135
doi: 10.24191/srj.v22i2.31211

Biodegradable Plastics from Cellulose Extracted from Caulerpa Lentilifera and Sugarcane Baggasse for a Sustainable Environment
type: item
description: The primary objective of this investigation is to explore the fabrication of bioplastic films utilizing corn starch as the foundational component, along with cellulose extracted from Caulerpa lentilifera, a form of marine algae and sugarcane bagasse (SCB). The extraction process incorporates the application of innovative techniques, notably alkali sonicator extraction (UAE), in alignment with contemporary developments in algae biotechnology. These bioplastic films are systematically produced with varying concentrations of cellulose originated from Caulerpa lentilifera and SCB, specifically at levels of 10%, 15%, and 20% (w/w), with a control sample devoid of cellulose extract. Interestingly, all cellulose-reinforced bioplastic films exhibited lower tensile strength (TS) and elongation at break (EAB) compared to the control sample. In Caulerpa lentillifera-based films, increasing cellulose concentration led to slight improvements in TS and EAB, whereas SCB-based films showed minimal changes across concentrations. These results suggest that the addition of extracted cellulose, despite increasing film thickness, did not enhance mechanical performance as expected, indicating that factors such as cellulose dispersion or matrix interaction may play a more dominant role. Evaluation through bacterial susceptibility tests reveals a conspicuous absence of inhibition zones, signifying the absence of antibacterial properties in the cellulose extracts from both seaweed and SCB. Finally, the biodegradation process for the biofilms showed rapid biodegradation, completing within two weeks under soil burial conditions. While the incorporation of cellulose did not enhance mechanical performance relative to the control, the use of marine algae and agricultural waste demonstrates a promising step toward the development of biodegradable materials from renewable sources.
subject: Bioplastics/Biocomposites
  topic: section
subject: algae
  topic: keywords
subject: bioplastics
  topic: keywords
subject: marine
  topic: keywords
subject: sustainability
  topic: keywords
subject: cellulose
  topic: keywords
subject: Caulerpa lentilifera
  topic: keywords
creator: Syed Taufiq Akmal Syed Nasiruddin
creator: Muhammad Firdaus Abdul Hadi
creator: Sharir Aizat Kamaruddin
creator: Rozilah Rajmi
rights: Copyright (c) 2025 Sharir Aizat Kamaruddin https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
date: 2025-08-26
publication date: 2025-08-26
starting page: 173
ending page: 192
doi: 10.24191/srj.v22i2.31598

The Influence of Weight and Thickness on Permeability and Moisture Management of Knitted Fabrics
type: item
description: Understanding the relationship between fabric properties and moisture management is crucial for developing functional textiles, particularly in applications such as sportswear and medical textiles. This study examined the correlation between air permeability, water permeability, and moisture management in various knitted fabric structures. Four fabric types (Mini mesh, Interlock, Scuba, and Hexagon) were tested for their permeability and moisture management characteristics. The data were analysed using statistical methods to determine the relationships between these variables. The analysis of Hexagon fabrics indicates a strong relationship between air permeability and fabric characteristics, with an R value of 0.774 and an R Square of 0.599. For Interlock fabrics, the analysis shows limited impact of weight and thickness on permeability properties and moisture management. The R Square values for air permeability, water permeability, and moisture management are 0.045, 0.150, and 0.100, respectively. The analysis of Mini mesh fabrics reveals weak relationships between weight and thickness with air permeability, water permeability, and moisture management. For Scuba fabrics, the analysis indicates a positive relationship between thickness and moisture management, with an R Square of 0.864 for moisture management. The findings reveal that air permeability significantly influences moisture management, with its effect varying based on the fabric structure. Water permeability also contributes to moisture regulation, particularly in applications like sportswear and medical textiles. These results underline the importance of fabric construction and material choice in optimizing comfort and performance. The study suggests that future research should include larger sample sizes and more comprehensive testing methods to enhance the understanding of fabric properties and their impact on moisture control. The insights provided are relevant for textile manufacturers and designers …
subject: Polymer and Composite/Textile
  topic: section
subject: knitted fabric
  topic: keywords
subject: air permeability
  topic: keywords
subject: water permeability
  topic: keywords
subject: moisture management
  topic: keywords
subject: fabric structure
  topic: keywords
subject: textile properties
  topic: keywords
creator: Mohammad Shafiiq Haikal Mohd Shafiie
creator: Suzaini Abdul Ghani
creator: Mohamad Faizul Yahya
rights: Copyright (c) 2025 Suzaini Abdul Ghani https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
date: 2025-08-26
publication date: 2025-08-26
starting page: 137
ending page: 150
doi: 10.24191/srj.v22i2.31217

Effect of La3+ and Ba2+ Substitution on Structural and Electrical Properties of Charge Ordered Divalent-Doped Sm0.5Ca0.5MnO3 Manganite
type: item
description: The fascinating characteristics of mixed valence perovskite manganite, such as its colossal magnetoresistance and charge ordering, have drawn a lot of attention. Despite the continuous study, it is still difficult to modify the charge ordering and its structure by A-site substitution. Thus, this study addresses the problem of understanding the effect of A-site substitution with different cations on structural and electrical properties of manganite. Through this study, the solid-state reaction approach was used to synthesize the charge ordered Sm0.5Ca0.5MnO3, Sm0.2La0.3Ca0.5MnO3 and Sm0.5Ca0.2Ba0.3MnO3 manganite. The structural and electrical properties of these materials were investigated. The single-phase, well-crystallized samples were all in an orthorhombic structure with a Pnma space group, according to the X-ray diffraction patterns. La3+ and Ba2+ substituted samples through Rietveld refinement show higher values of unit cell volume, indicating that the substitution at manganite's A-site was successful. According to Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, the metal-oxygen and Mn-O bonds are visible at the 550 cm−1 and 650 cm−1 bands, respectively. While the four-point probe method was used to examine the impact of La3+ and Ba2+ electrical resistivity. Sm0.5Ca0.5MnO3 and Sm0.5Ca0.2Ba0.3MnO3 manganite exhibit insulating properties in a temperature range of 30 K to 300 K, according to electrical resistivity measurements, while Sm0.2La0.3Ca0.5MnO3 exhibits a metal-insulator transition. The magnetoresistance effect is demonstrated by the fact that all samples' resistivity was reduced by adding an external magnetic field of 0.8 T. The suppression of charge-ordered phase in Sm0.2La0.3Ca0.5MnO3, which is linked to increase in tolerance factor shows significant role and improved the double exchange mechanism. In Sm0.5Ca0.2Ba0.3MnO3, on the other hand, the weakening of charge-ordered phase is related to the A-site mismatch cation, which has bigger impact than high value…
subject: Magnetic Materials
  topic: section
subject: Manganite
  topic: keywords
subject: Charge Ordered
  topic: keywords
subject: Structural
  topic: keywords
subject: ; Electrical resistivity
  topic: keywords
subject: Magnetoresistance
  topic: keywords
creator: Rozilah Rajmi
creator: Nuraina Hanum AbdulRuhim
creator: Muhammad Zulharmi Taqzim Kamaruzzaman
creator: Norazila Ibrahim
creator: Muhamad Kamil Yaakob
rights: Copyright (c) 2025 Rozilah Rajmi, Nuraina Hanum AbdulRuhim, Muhammad Zulharmi Taqzim Kamaruzzaman, Norazila Ibrahim, Muhamad Kamil Yaakob https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
date: 2025-08-26
publication date: 2025-08-26
starting page: 99
ending page: 115
doi: 10.24191/srj.v22i2.26787

Effect of Deposition Temperature on The Structural and Crystallinity Properties of Self-Catalyzed Growth Indium Tin Oxide (ITO) Thin Film Using CVD Technique
type: item
description: Indium Tin Oxide (ITO) is one of the electronic materials that is widely used as a transparent conductor in optoelectronic device applications. The growth techniques of ITO are crucial in order to grow the best structure of ITO for the better performance application. The main objective of this study to investigate the effect of deposition temperature (1000 °C, 1100 °C, and 1200 °C) on their structural and crystallinity properties of self-catalyzed ITO thin film synthesized using chemical vapor deposition (CVD) technique. The ITO thin films were deposited onto silicon substrates using a tube furnace via the CVD technique, utilizing a precursor mixture of indium(III) oxide (In₂O₃) and tin(IV) oxide (SnO₂), with argon gas used as the carrier. Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) showed that thin film at 1100 °C exhibited well-defined shapes, minimal aggregation, and an average diameter of 0.46 μm, making it the optimal temperature for synthesizing high-quality ITO thin film. Energy-dispersive X-ray (EDX) analysis confirmed the homogeneous distribution of indium, tin, and oxygen at this temperature, with the highest compositional homogeneity of 56.46%. Moreover, XRD pattern confirms the presence of peak at 2θ = 31.1° corresponds to the (320) plane of cubic indium tin oxide (In2Sn2O7) across all samples. Results show that as the deposition temperature increased, structures with well-defined shapes were formed, and the crystallinity was enhanced. The crystallite size increased from 35.21 nm to 103.05 nm as at 1000 °C and 1200 °C, respectively with a corresponding decrease in lattice strain in the structure. These findings demonstrate how crucial the deposition temperature in determining the ideal structural properties of ITO thin film for application in particular optoelectronic devices.
subject: Electronics Materials and Devices
  topic: section
subject: Indium Tin Oxide
  topic: keywords
subject: Self-catalyzed growth
  topic: keywords
subject: Deposition temperature
  topic: keywords
subject: Structural properties
  topic: keywords
subject: Chemical Vapor Deposition
  topic: keywords
creator: Mardhiah Mohd Yunus
creator: Azianty Saroni
rights: Copyright (c) 2025 Mardhiah Mohd Yunus, Azianty Saroni https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
date: 2025-08-26
publication date: 2025-08-26
starting page: 83
ending page: 97
doi: 10.24191/srj.v22i2.23000

Effect of Solvents on ZIF-8 and its Adsorption Efficiency for Norfloxacin
type: item
description: In this study, ZIF-8, a novel adsorption material for norfloxacin (NOR) adsorption, was created and evaluated. This study aimed to investigate the effect of using different solvents – water and methanol during the synthesis process on the adsorption performance of ZIF-8 towards NOR. Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) coupled with Energy Dispersive X-ray (EDX), Brunauer-Emmett Teller (BET) and X-ray Diffractometer (XRD) studies were used to fully evaluate the synthesized adsorption material in order to comprehend its adsorption capabilities and structural characteristics. The findings indicated that ZIF-8 synthesized using methanol (ZIF-8-M) demonstrated superior crystallinity, greater pore volume, and a larger surface area when compared to ZIF-8-W, which was produced using water. Additionally, ZIF-8-W had a non-uniform particle structure with grain sizes of approximately 50.19±6.40 nm, while ZIF-8-M exhibited a uniform morphology with grain sizes around 12.62±1.11 nm. The adsorption experiments demonstrated that ZIF-8-M exhibited superior removal efficiency (86.4%) and adsorption capacity (17.30 mg g⁻¹) for NOR, while ZIF-8-W achieved lower values of 53.01% and 10.60 mg g⁻¹, respectively. In addition, isotherm studies demonstrated that both materials exhibited multilayer adsorption, with the Freundlich model best fit their adsorption behaviour. Using kinetic analysis, a pseudo-secondorder model that suggested a chemical adsorption process was verified. Higher temperatures favoured adsorption, based on thermodynamic study, which also identified the spontaneous and endothermic process. This research underscores the importance of solvent choice during the synthesis process, which can significantly affect the properties of ZIF-8. The findings provide an improved comprehension of how solvents and ZIF-8 interact, which could lead to more efficient solutions for mitigating pharmaceutical pollution in wastewater systems.
subject: Nanomaterials
  topic: section
subject: Wastewater treatment
  topic: keywords
subject: Adsorption
  topic: keywords
subject: Norfloxacin
  topic: keywords
subject: ZIF-8
  topic: keywords
subject: Solvent
  topic: keywords
creator: Lili Wu
creator: Huey Ling Tan
creator: Ying Pei Lim
rights: Copyright (c) 2025 Lili Wu, Huey Ling Tan, Ying Pei Lim https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
date: 2025-08-26
publication date: 2025-08-26
starting page: 61
ending page: 82
doi: 10.24191/srj.v22i2.26551

Preparation and Characterization of Pectin-Starch Hydrogel Modified with Urea and Lactic Acid-Based Deep Eutectic Solvent for Soil Water Retention
type: item
description: Hydrogels are 3D polymeric networks that can absorb and retain large amounts of water and benefit many industries, including agriculture. However, most hydrogels nowadays are synthetic, negatively affecting the environment and human health. In this study, two biodegradable hydrogels were prepared using natural polymers of pectin and starch with the addition of deep eutectic solvent (DES) of choline chloride: urea (ChCl: urea) and choline chloride: lactic acid (ChCl: LA) to increase the water absorption through the casting method. The hydrogel has been optimized using different concentrations of crosslinking agent and different concentrations of DES to obtain their highest water sorption. The properties of hydrogels, such as swelling ratio, water retention, mechanical strength, biodegradability, and seed germination, have been investigated using standard methods. The results showed that the optimized and pectin-starch-ChCl: urea, and pectin-starch-ChCl: LA successfully absorbed water up to 108.70% and 120.80% within one hour, respectively, compared to the control, pectinstarch hydrogel without DES (97.86%). The hydrogels were found to be biodegradable with a rate of degradation of 100% for pectin-starch-ChCl: urea and 95.75% for pectin-starch-ChCl: LA, which was better than the control of 90.25% after 20 days in soil. The germination seed testing showed that hydrogel with ChCl: LA significantly promoted the growth of bean seeds and could maintain soil moisture for 20 days. In conclusion, it is proven that hydrogel with DES is better than hydrogel without DES, considering the higher water sorption of hydrogel and the ability to release water in dry areas. Hence, the hydrogel developed with DES showed high potential for agriculture by maintaining soil moisture, reducing irrigation water consumption, and increasing seed germination.
subject: Biomaterials
  topic: section
subject: hydrogel
  topic: keywords
subject: pectin-starch
  topic: keywords
subject: biodegradable
  topic: keywords
subject: water retention
  topic: keywords
subject: deep eutectic solvent
  topic: keywords
creator: Rizana Yusof
creator: Aniis Amira Mohd Yusoff
creator: Siti Noor Atiyah Md Raffe
creator: Sarina Mohamad
rights: Copyright (c) 2025 Rizana Yusof, Aniis Amira Mohd Yusoff, Siti Noor Atiyah Md Raffe, Sarina Mohamad https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
date: 2025-02-27
publication date: 2025-02-27
starting page: 243
ending page: 265
doi: 10.24191/srj.v22i1.17308

Effect of Heat Treatments on Physico-mechanical Properties of Kelempayan Wood
type: item
description: The treatment of wood performs as to enhance its resistance properties, thereby improving its dimensional stability, strength, and durability as compared to untreated wood. In this study, a kelempayan wood (Neolamarckia cadamba) was used because it is one of the potential fast-growing species which can be as an alternative raw material for furniture components. The aim of this study is to determine the effect of physico-mechanical properties of kelempayan wood through oven and microwave heat treatments at different density groups. The wood billets left to air dried before cutting into the wood samples size for physical and mechanical testing. The samples were treated by using the oven at temperature of 105 °C for 24 hours, microwave at power of 90 watts with maximum rated power output of 1000 watts for 3 minutes and microwave laboratory scale. The physical test methods were performed according to ASTM D4442-20 standard. Meanwhile, the mechanical properties have been tested base to the BS 373 standard. The Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) was used to examine microstructure of treated samples. The results revealed that all treatments had a significant effect on the physico-mechanical properties of kelempayan wood. The microwave heat treatment effectively affected kelempayan wood by lowering the physical properties and increasing both compression and shear strength for mechanical properties. MOE and MOR strength were decreased for both oven and microwave treatment. Based on the SEM image, the microstructure of kelempayan wood shows that the heat treatment lowers the water uptake, and the wood cell walls absorb less water due to the hydroxyl groups amount reduction which as a result in decreasing of wood shrinkage and swelling. The advantages of heat-treated wood are reduced hygroscopicity and better dimensional stability. Therefore, it was suggested that heat treatment influenced the physico-mechanical properties of kelempayan wood which made it possible to be used a…
subject: General Science
  topic: section
subject: Neolamarckia cadamba
  topic: keywords
subject: physico-mechanical properties
  topic: keywords
subject: oven and microwave heat treatment
  topic: keywords
creator: Maryam Mohd Radzi
creator: Siti Zalifah Mahmud
creator: Nur Hannani Abdul Latif
creator: Noorshashillawati Azura Mohammad
creator: Zairul Amin Rabidin
rights: Copyright (c) 2025 Maryam Mohd Radzi, Siti Zalifah Mahmud, Nur Hannani Abdul Latif, Noorshashillawati Azura Mohammad, Zairul Amin Rabidin https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
date: 2025-08-26
publication date: 2025-08-26
starting page: 33
ending page: 59
doi: 10.24191/srj.v22i2.26547

Elucidation Study of Bioavailable Potential Among Plant-based Silver Nanoparticles Fabricated from Several Local Fruit Peels
type: item
description: Plant-based silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) derived from biological waste (fruits) have piqued researchers' interest due to their remarkable antibacterial and antioxidant characteristics, as well as toxicity studies. This study aimed to elucidate the bioavailable potential of AgNPs from silver nitrate fabricated from A. comosus, G. mangostana, and M. indica peel extracts as green reducing agents. UV-Vis and FTIR analysis corroborated the presence of AgNPs. Antibacterial activity against S. aureus and E. coli was evaluated using the disc diffusion and minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) techniques. Interestingly, all peel extracts successfully produced AgNPs, resulting in reddish-dark brown alterations with a peak absorbance at 432-440 nm and the presence of the most important functional groups, including O-H, C-H, and C=O, which correspond to the most bioactive compounds in peel extracts used as reducing agents detected using FTIR. The antibacterial activity of produced AgNPs against S. aureus and E. coli was observed to vary with nanoparticle concentration. Higher doses of AgNPs resulted in bigger inhibition zones, with AC-AgNPs exhibiting the highest antibacterial activity compared to the other samples. The MIC values for AC-AgNPs antagonistic towards S. aureus and E. coli were 2.5 and 5 mg/mL, respectively, surpassing GM-AgNPs and MI-AgNPs. This study emphasizes a sustainable approach to nanoparticles synthesis using local fruit peels of pineapple, mangosteen, and mango, as well as the prospect of creating AgNP-based antimicrobial and increase the value of local fruit waste.
subject: Biomaterials
  topic: section
subject: Plant-based Silver Nanoparticles
  topic: keywords
subject: Pineapple
  topic: keywords
subject: Mangosteen
  topic: keywords
subject: Mango
  topic: keywords
subject: Biovailable Potential
  topic: keywords
creator: Zainab Razali
creator: Nur Syahzanani Aqilah Jami’an
creator: Norrizah Jaafar Sidik
creator: Roejhan Md Kawi
rights: Copyright (c) 2025 Zainab Razali, Nur Syahzanani Aqilah Jami’an, Norrizah Jaafar Sidik, Roejhan Md Kawi https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
date: 2025-02-27
publication date: 2025-02-27
starting page: 223
ending page: 241
doi: 10.24191/srj.v22i1.17045

Development of Serum Stick from Medusomyces gisevii (kombucha) to Restore Facial Skin Assets
type: item
description: Kombucha, a fermented tea drink, is praised for its potential health benefits and antioxidant properties. Although studies suggest that kombucha has antioxidant properties, this trend is somehow inconsistent (some journals show that the antioxidant content is lower during fermentation while others show the opposite). This inconsistent research creates a gap in knowledge about the effectiveness of kombucha for topical applications such as wrinkle reduction and increased elasticity. Additionally, traditional liquid serums present challenges in travel and use. This research study investigated the potential of kombucha as an anti-aging agent in skin care, specifically in the form of a serum stick, and found that the antioxidant content in kombucha filtrate increased with fermentation time (comparison between day 7 and day 17), with the highest Total Phenolic Content (TPC) and Total Flavonoid Content (TFC) values observed on day 17, specifically 2411.7647 mg GAE/L and 600 mg QE/L, respectively. The DPPH test confirmed this finding, showing a stronger antioxidant effect on day 17 (lower IC₅₀ value) of 28.0178 mg/L. The antioxidant properties of kombucha are attributed to the presence of bioactive compounds such as polyphenols, and flavonoids, which have been shown to neutralize free radicals, reduce oxidative stress, and promote collagen synthesis, ultimately leading to better skin elasticity and reduce lines and wrinkles. The serum stick formulation incorporating kombucha filtration has been developed. Patch testing showed good tolerance across different testers. Users experience testing (organoleptic testing) identified areas for improvement regarding product smoothness and ease of use, with formulation 2 found to be superior to formulation 3.
subject: General Science
  topic: section
subject: Kombucha
  topic: keywords
subject: DPPH
  topic: keywords
subject: TPC
  topic: keywords
subject: TFC
  topic: keywords
subject: Antioxidant
  topic: keywords
creator: Nur Afiqah Yusri
creator: Mumtazatul Mahfuzah Mahadzir
creator: Nor Azira Irma Muhammad
rights: Copyright (c) 2025 Nur Afiqah Yusri, Mumtazatul Mahfuzah Mahadzir, Nor Azira Irma Muhammad https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
date: 2025-02-27
publication date: 2025-02-27
starting page: 193
ending page: 221
doi: 10.24191/srj.v22i1.17043

Elucidating the Effects of Stirring Time on Chemical and Electrochemical Properties of Polyaniline Salt Dispersion in Tetrahydrofuran
type: item
description: Polyaniline (PANi) salt was synthesized using the oxidative polymerization method with ammonium persulfate (APS) as an initiator. The dispersibility of the prepared samples in tetrahydrofuran (THF) at different stirring durations (30 minutes, 8 hours, and 24 hours) was studied by elucidating their chemical and electrical properties. Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy was employed to determine the composition of PANi salt, while electrical properties were studied using UV-Vis spectroscopy to calculate the absorbance and optical band-gap energy of the PANi salt dispersion. The results show that the best dispersibility of PANi salts occurs at 8 hours, as indicated by FTIR and UV-Vis spectroscopy investigations that detect the highest absorption peaks characteristic of quinoid and benzenoid units, respectively. It was observed that dispersing PES in THF for 8 hours improves the bandgap of PANi from 3.10 eV to 2.41 eV. Thus, this study underlines the critical significance of stirring time in increasing PANi dispersibility and understanding its spectroscopic properties, providing insights for its practical use in various applications, including organic electronics, sensors, and actuators.
subject: Polymer and Composite/Textile
  topic: section
subject: Polyaniline
  topic: keywords
subject: Polyemeraldine Salts (PES)
  topic: keywords
subject: Dispersion
  topic: keywords
subject: Band-gap
  topic: keywords
creator: Helyati Abu Hassan Shaari
creator: Nurin Nabila Syamsul
creator: Nureen Aatea Syamsul
creator: Muhammad Amirul Asyraf Mohamad Amin
creator: Khairina Nabihah Ahmad
creator: Nur Raihan Mohamed
creator: Zuliahani Ahmad
rights: Copyright (c) 2025 Helyati Abu Hassan Shaari, Nurin Nabila Syamsul, Nureen Aatea Syamsul, Muhammad Amirul Asyraf Mohamad Amin, Khairina Nabihah Ahmad, Nur Raihan Mohamed, Zuliahani Ahmad https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
date: 2025-02-27
publication date: 2025-02-27
starting page: 179
ending page: 191
doi: 10.24191/srj.v22i1.17041

Tensile and Thermal Properties of Natural Rubber/Ethylene Propylene Rubber Waste/Linear Low-density Polyethylene Blends
type: item
description: Natural rubber (NR) is an isoprene polymer and non-polar rubber obtained from Hevea brasiliensis tree. NR has superior mechanical properties but poor resistance to heat and ozone due to its unsaturation in backbone chain. Ethylene propylene rubber (EPDM) is non-polar rubber which is highly in demand especially in automotive industries because it has high oxidation and ozone cracking resistance since the double bond does not exist in the main backbone chain, leading to high amount of scrap or waste accumulated by time. Thus, this research embarks to use the blend of NR/EPDM in addressing green environment. However, the blend of this material leads to phase separation and poor interfacial adhesion, resulting in a heterogeneous blend that possesses poor compatibility. Hence, linear low-density polyethylene (LLDPE) is used as a compatibilizer and additive in this blend. The ternary blends NR/EPDMw/LLDPE blend were prepared in an internal mixer at approximately 160 °C. The amount of EPDMw was fixed at 60 phr, but NR and LLDPE were manipulated. The blend compositions of the ternary blend were 40/60/0, 35/60/5, 30/60/10, 25/60/15, and 20/60/20 (phr) of NR/EPDMw/LLDPE, respectively. The effects of the partial replacement of NR by LLDPE on compatibility, tensile and thermal properties were studied using tensile testing, DSC and TGA. The results showed that the ternary blend was partially miscible, and the 30/60/10 blend composition had better compatibility compared to other compositions, which was indicated by an increment of tensile strength and elongation at break, with 11.33 MPa and 270.66%, respectively than that of the control sample. Adding LLDPE to an NR/EPDMw blend increased the Tm, but further increasing LLDPE from 10 to 20 phr and it did not significantly affect the Tm, which remained unchanged. It also showed that the crystallinity and thermal stability of the blend increased as LLDPE content in the blends increased. This was because the presence of LLDPE improved…
subject: Polymer and Composite/Textile
  topic: section
subject: NR; EPDM Waste; LLDPE; Compatibility; Tensile Properties, Thermal Properties
  topic: keywords
creator: Nor Mazlina Abdul Wahab
creator: Nurin Sabrina Hanapi
creator: Mohamad Syamaizar Mustafa
creator: Dalina Samsudin
creator: Zuliahani Ahmad
creator: Faiezah Hashim
creator: Muhamad Naiman Sarip
rights: Copyright (c) 2025 Nor Mazlina Abdul Wahab Abdul Wahab, Nurin Sabrina Hanapi, Mohamad Syamaizar Mustafa, Dalina Samsudin, Zuliahani Ahmad, Faiezah Hashim, Muhamad Naiman Sarip https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
date: 2025-02-27
publication date: 2025-02-27
starting page: 167
ending page: 178
doi: 10.24191/srj.v22i1.17039

Effect of Impregnation Temperature on Monoethanolamine-Kenaf Biosorbent for CO2 Adsorption from Gas Mixture
type: item
description: Capturing carbon dioxide (CO2) from industrial resources to mitigate the global increase in carbon emissions is a challenging and expensive process, especially when utilizing Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) technologies. The energy cost of CO2 capture in post-combustion CCS, employing the absorption method with monoethanolamine (MEA) as the commonly used liquid amine. This study focusing on the adsorption method, which is more energy saving and less corrosive for CO2 captured, by using modified kenaf biosorbent. Its low density, highly porous and permeability is well matched to be used as adsorbent. This study specifically investigated the influence of impregnation temperature of kenaf modified with a constant concentration of MEA towards the CO2 adsorption capability at different gas flowrates and pressure bed. From the surface morphology of modified kenaf sorbent, MEA-kenaf impregnated at 55 °C exhibited large pore openings and more structured walls compared to the other temperatures. The kenaf samples were then utilized in IsoSORP gas analyzer for CO2 adsorption with a mixture of CO2 - Nitrogen (N2) at two different flow rates and various pressure beds. The highest CO2 adsorption was achieved by the modified kenaf at impregnation temperature of 55 °C (gas flowrate 150 cm3/min) and 65 °C (gas flowrate 250 cm3/min). Apart from that, the adsorption ability shows a proportional increment when the gas pressure flow increased from 10 up to 30 bar. The research findings indicated that increasing the impregnation temperature enhanced the sorbent's pore size and nitrogen content impregnated on the kenaf surface (increase basicity), resulting in a significant improvement in CO2 adsorption capacity.
subject: Materials for Energy Storage
  topic: section
subject: Adsorption; Monoethanolamine; Carbon dioxide; Kenaf; Impregnation; Modification.
  topic: keywords
creator: Norsuhadat Nordin
creator: Nabilah Zaini
creator: Wan Aisyah Wan Mustafa
creator: Muhammad Syahin Hazimi Mohd Hazli
rights: Copyright (c) 2025 norsuhadat nordin, Dr, Wan Aisyah Wan Mustafa, Muhammad Syahin Hazimi Mohd Hazli https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
date: 2025-02-27
publication date: 2025-02-27
starting page: 147
ending page: 166
doi: 10.24191/srj.v22i1.17037

Enhanced Mechanical Properties and Biodegradability of Polyvinyl Alcohol and Starch Filled Water Hyacinth Fibre Biofilm
type: item
description: Single-use plastic packaging that is difficult to biodegrade has been used extensively for several decades, contributing to pollution. As a result, the development of biodegradable plastic packaging has become essential to solve the ever-growing issue of disposing of plastic waste. Materials such as polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) and tapioca starch have been utilized in the creation of biodegradable biofilms. However, the addition of starch into PVA could reduce the strength and physical properties of biofilm due to the low mechanical properties of starch. Therefore, the main interest of this research is to investigate the mechanical and biodegradable properties of a biofilm composed of PVA and tapioca starch filled with water hyacinth fibres (WHF). The PVA/starch matrix was mixed with varying WHF loadings during the casting process, which produces the biofilm. Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) analysis demonstrated a strong biofilm formation between the PVA/starch and WHF due to a good chemical interaction. Furthermore, the biofilm has become more stiff and rigid as a result of the addition of WHF, along with the increased in tensile strength and Young's modulus. However, the addition of WHF had consequently decreased the tensile strain at break of the biofilm. Because the biofilms were soluble in water, they lost weight when immersed in and stirred around in distilled water. Next, as the concentration of fibre increased, so did the biodegradability of the film. Based from the results, it can be inferred that 10% w/w was the ideal WHF loading, producing good mechanical, biodegradable and solubility qualities. Since it is a numerous and accessible material, using water hyacinth, which is frequently thrown away because it disturbs the aquatic ecosystem, in the process of producing biofilms is a promising alternative to the packaging industry.
subject: Biocomposite
  topic: section
subject: Polyvinyl alcohol
  topic: keywords
subject: Starch
  topic: keywords
subject: Water hyacinth
  topic: keywords
subject: Biofil
  topic: keywords
subject: Packaging
  topic: keywords
creator: Siti Nor Din
creator: Muhammad Afiq Othman
creator: Faiezah Hashim
creator: Nurul Aizan Mohamad Zaini
creator: Nor Hafizah Che Ismail
creator: Zuliahani Ahmad
rights: Copyright (c) 2025 Siti Nor Din, Muhammad Afiq Othman, Faiezah Hashim, Nurul Aizan Mohamad Zaini; Nor Hafizah Che Ismail; Zuliahani Ahmad https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
date: 2025-08-26
publication date: 2025-08-26
starting page: 17
ending page: 32
doi: 10.24191/srj.v22i2.27539

Properties of Magnesium-Zinc Graphene Composites
type: item
description: Magnesium (Mg) is a metal that is light in weight and well known for its high strength to various role in several biological processes, automotive components, alloys, and aerospace applications. The purpose of this study is to fabricate and determine the physical and mechanical properties of Mg Zn reinforced with graphene composites, with concern for enhancement of super strong material made of carbon atoms. The focus is on figuring out the effect of different percentages of graphene on the physical and mechanical properties of the composite. The aim of this research is to identify the best ratio that gives the hard and most durable Mg-Zn composite by using hardness test, Archimedes test, and XRD analysis. Five sample of Mg- Zn were fabricated with different percentages of graphene which were 0 wt.%, 1 wt.%, 3 wt.%, 5 wt.%, and 7 wt.%. All 5 samples were mixed in mixing drum for 30 minutes with speed of 200 revolutions per minute then the mixture is then placed in mold and compressed for 2 minutes under 8 tons of hydraulic pressure. Then the sample undergo sintering process where it was sintered for 2 hours in 350 °C. Then the sample were ground and polished before undergo hardness, Archimedes, and XRD test. Hardness result for Mg-Zn reinforced with graphene shows that the highest hardness value is with addition 3 wt.% of graphene (53.93 HRF), while the lowest reading is for 0 wt.% of graphene (26.67 HRF). For density result, maximum relative density (91.08%), was obtained from graphene percentage at 3 wt.%, while the lowest relative density (82.37%), was obtained from graphene percentage at 0 wt.%. From this research, sample with 3 wt.% of graphene shows better properties in term of hardness, porosity and XRD analysis. To conclude, the present work showed a successful fabrication of Mg-Zn composite added with graphene for application in biomedical sector and other sector.
subject: Metals and Alloys
  topic: section
subject: Magnesium
  topic: keywords
subject: Zinc
  topic: keywords
subject: alloy
  topic: keywords
subject: powder metallurgy
  topic: keywords
subject: graphene
  topic: keywords
creator: Nur Maizatul Shima Adzali
creator: Nur Hidayah bt Ahmad Zaidi
rights: Copyright (c) 2025 Nur Maizatul Shima Adzali, Nur Hidayah bt Ahmad Zaidi https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
date: 2025-02-27
publication date: 2025-02-27
starting page: 101
ending page: 124
doi: 10.24191/srj.v22i1.17033

Mechanical Properties of Unsaturated Polyester Composites Reinforced with Acid-Treated Palm Kernel Shell at Various Filler Loadings
type: item
description: An attempt has been successfully made to utilize palm kernel shell waste as a potential filler in unsaturated polyester composites. A problem with the hydrophilic characteristics of palm kernel shell, which restricts its compatibility and interfacial bonding with polyester matrix, was overcome by chemical treatment with acrylic acid. The composites were prepared via the hand lay-up technique with different amounts of filler loadings (0, 15, 30, 45, and 60 php). Esterification of cellulosic palm kernel shell fiber by acrylic acid has increased the surface roughness of the fibers which tended to improve the mechanical interlocking between the fiber and matrix interphase. The effects of acid treatment and filler loading on the mechanical and morphological properties of composites were studied using mechanical and morphological tests. The addition of palm kernel shell showed a decrement in strength compared with pristine samples due to poor interaction and compatibility of constituent materials. The modulus for tensile and flexural was gradually increased from 2.4 GPa to 2.9 GPa and 2.8 GPa to 3.5 GPa, respectively, through an increase in filler loadings. These results reflect increased stiffness of the composites imparted by the stiff filler. Nevertheless, 15 php of palm kernel shell treated with acrylic acid yielded improved tensile and flexural strength at 32 MPa and 49 MPa, respectively. This result is due to the increased interfacial adhesion between filler and matrix, as exhibited in the Scanning Electron Microscope micrograph, which showed better interfacial interaction within the composites.
subject: Polymer and Composite/Textile
  topic: section
subject: Acid Treatment; Palm Kernel Shell; Composite; Mechanical Properties
  topic: keywords
creator: Dalina Samsudin
creator: Nor Mazlina Abdul Wahab
creator: Salamiah Zakaria
creator: Faiezah Hashim
creator: Zuliahani Ahmad
creator: Sharifah Nafisah Syed Ismail
creator: Mohamad Syamaizar Mustafa
rights: Copyright (c) 2025 Dalina Samsudin, Nor Mazlina Abdul Wahab, Salamiah Zakaria, Faiezah Hashim, Zuliahani Ahmad, Sharifah Nafisah Syed Ismail, Mohamad Syamaizar Mustafa https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
date: 2025-08-26
publication date: 2025-08-26
starting page: 1
ending page: 15
doi: 10.24191/srj.v22i2.22999

Antioxidant Potential of Curcuma xanthorrhiza -based Serum Stick
type: item
description: Solid skincare products are sustainable and convenient alternatives to traditional liquid or semi-solid formulations. Incorporation of natural active ingredients like Curcuma xanthorrhiza (C. xanthorrhiza) extract into solid skincare products can offer potential benefits for skin health. This study investigated the Soxhlet extraction of C. xanthorrhiza using ethanol solvents. The mean total yield was 8.16%. Then, the extract exhibited a promising IC50 value of 20.86 ppm, indicating significant antioxidant activity. Total phenolic content (TPC) was 45.71 ± 0.36 mg GAE/g, and the total flavonoid content (TFC) was 30.06 ± 0.41 mg QE/g thus suggesting the presence of potentially beneficial bioactive compounds. This study was to formulate a novel serum stick formulation that incorporated C. xanthorrhiza extract. The sticks developed have maintained a slightly acidic pH of 5.018 which aligns with healthy skin's natural pH and remains stable. These findings showed that C. xanthorrhiza extract could potentially be developed as a solid skin care product. This research lays the groundwork for further development of C. xanthorrhiza extract-based topical products with potential antioxidant properties. Future studies could explore the efficacy and safety of the formulated serum stick in clinical trials.
subject: General Science
  topic: section
subject: Curcuma xanthorrhiza
  topic: keywords
subject: Antioxidant
  topic: keywords
subject: Skincare
  topic: keywords
subject: Serum stick
  topic: keywords
creator: Mumtazatul Mahfuzah Mahadzir
creator: Nor Azira Irma Muhammad
creator: Nur Afiqah Yusri
rights: Copyright (c) 2025 Mumtazatul Mahfuzah Mahadzir, Nor Azira Irma Muhammad, Nur Afiqah Yusri https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
date: 2025-02-27
publication date: 2025-02-27
starting page: 83
ending page: 100
doi: 10.24191/srj.v22i1.17030

Recent Malaysian Food Waste Generation Trends, Enacted Policies and Challenges in Food Waste Management
type: item
description: Food waste (FW) presents a significant global challenge, particularly in Malaysia, where guidance on waste composition and management issues remains limited. This review examines current trends, policies, and obstacles in managing FW in Malaysia by systematically analyzing a range of publications and conference proceedings from the last 15 years (2008-2023). The methodology involved a comprehensive literature review, focusing on studies that address FW management practices and its challenges, technological advancements, and policy frameworks. Key challenges identified include incomplete data, low public awareness, underdeveloped digestion technologies, and insufficient knowledge of FW treatment methods. Effective FW management is contingent upon enhancing public awareness, improving waste segregation, and upgrading infrastructure. In light of current practices and policies, this review proposes an integrated management framework that combines wet anaerobic digestion with aerobic windrow composting, leading to the conversion of FW into biogas and final landfilling. This approach aims to minimize landfill dependency and promote a circular economy by transforming FW into renewable energy sources.
subject: Environmental Chemistry
  topic: section
subject: Food waste
  topic: keywords
subject: waste management
  topic: keywords
subject: anaerobic digestion
  topic: keywords
subject: aerobic windrow composting
  topic: keywords
subject: landfill
  topic: keywords
creator: Hasyireen Abdul Halim
creator: Nursahizalina Mohd Sa’at
creator: Rozieana Abu
rights: Copyright (c) 2025 Hasyireen Abdul Halim, Nursahizalina Mohd Sa’at , Rozieana Abu https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
date: 2025-02-27
publication date: 2025-02-27
starting page: 125
ending page: 146
doi: 10.24191/srj.v22i1.17035

Spatial Distribution of Microplastics Abundance Along Selected Beaches in Kelantan, Malaysia
type: item
description: The issue of microplastics is far from being in its infancy. This study investigates the spatial distribution of microplastics along selected beaches in Kelantan, Malaysia, addressing a critical environmental issue. It highlights the environmental and health threats posed by microplastics, especially in the coastal regions of Kelantan, and identifies the significant challenge of microplastic pollution exacerbated by natural coastal phenomena and human activities. The objective is to quantify the abundance and distribution of microplastics using advanced analytical and geospatial techniques. Methodologically, samples were collected from ten locations, each comprising 30 subsampling areas. Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR) Spectroscopy was employed to identify predominant contaminants, including Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC), Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene (ABS), Polypropylene (PP), and Polystyrene (PS). Spatial distribution was analyzed using ArcGIS 10.8.0 with Inverse Distance Weighting (IDW) Interpolation to model the microplastics' distribution patterns. A total of 1,607 microplastics were found, with an average of 5.3567 pieces per gram. Fragment-type microplastics dominated, with black and blue being the most common colours identified. The findings also revealed that the intertidal zones were the most heavily impacted areas along the coast. In conclusion, this research provides crucial insights into the prevalence and spatial distribution of microplastic pollution in the coastal environments of Kelantan, underscoring the need for continuous monitoring and the development of targeted mitigation strategies to address this growing environmental concern.
subject: General Science
  topic: section
subject: Microplastics
  topic: keywords
subject: Spatial Distributions
  topic: keywords
subject: Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy
  topic: keywords
subject: Geospatial Modelling
  topic: keywords
subject: Coastal Environments
  topic: keywords
creator: Muhammad Zakwan Anas Abd Wahid
creator: Anis Syuhada Saufi
creator: Nurul Aliah Farhana Kamarulzaman
creator: Muhamad Nazarwin Zainal Abidin
creator: Mohamed Syazwan Osman
rights: Copyright (c) 2025 Muhammad Zakwan Anas Abd Wahid, Anis Syuhada Saufi, Nurul Aliah Farhana Kamarulzaman, Muhamad Nazarwin Zainal Abidin, Mohamed Syazwan Osman https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
date: 2025-02-27
publication date: 2025-02-27
starting page: 39
ending page: 66
doi: 10.24191/srj.v22i1.17025

Performance of Spent Iron-Based Catalyst in the Photo Assisted Electrochemical System for the Removal of Methylene Blue (MB) Dye
type: item
description: This study explores the efficacy of a spent iron-based (Fe.S) catalyst for the photo-assisted electrochemical for removal of Methylene Blue (MB) dye. The catalyst performance was assessed under various operational parameters, including catalyst loading, initial solution pH, current density, and initial dye concentration. The commercial iron oxide (Fe3O4) performance was benchmarked against spent iron-based catalyst under similar operational conditions. The results revealed that the best catalyst dosage was found at 0.02 g and 0.06 g for Fe.S and Fe3O4, respectively. Interestingly, the Fe.S achieved complete MB decolorization, surpassing Fe3O4 which only reached 75% under similar conditions. To support these comparative performances, the catalysts were characterized using SEM-EDX, XRD, FTIR, and BET analyses. After five cycles of reusability, the Fe.S maintained complete removal of MB, whereas the Fe3O4 reusability maintained 45% after three cycles. However, Fe.S experienced leaching of metal ions concentration range 0.1 – 0.5 mgL-1, which is exceed the allowable regulatory limits. Overall, the study highlights the potential of Fe.S for efficient MB dye removal. Nonetheless, the metal leaching concern must be resolved prior to practical application.
subject: Textiles
  topic: section
subject: Photoelectrochemical
  topic: keywords
subject: Spent Iron Catalyst
  topic: keywords
subject: Pollutant Remediation
  topic: keywords
subject: Methylene Blue
  topic: keywords
subject: Catalyst Stability
  topic: keywords
creator: Nurul Athikah Azizan
creator: Norhaslinda Nasuha
creator: Hawaiah Imam Maarof
creator: Wan Izhan Nawawi Wan Ismail
creator: Suriati Sufian
rights: Copyright (c) 2025 Nurul Athikah Azizan, Ir Dr Norhaslinda Nasuha, Dr Hawaiah Imam Maarof, Assoc. Prof. Wan Izhan Nawawi Wan Ismail, Assoc. Prof. DR. Suriati Sufian https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
date: 2025-02-27
publication date: 2025-02-27
starting page: 19
ending page: 37
doi: 10.24191/srj.v22i1.17028

Characterization, Physicomechanical and Corrosion Properties of Reinforced Microcrystalline Cellulose Treated Silane Unsaturated Polyester Primer Coatings.
type: item
description: Corrosion has been a major universal issue due to failure of building structures and high maintenance. The utilization of unsaturated polyester (UPE) as primer coating is insufficient to inhibit the corrosion. Hence, microcrystalline cellulose (MCC) had been incorporated into UPE as a reinforcement filler for the production of primer coatings, due to its high crystalline region in the structure. The objectives of this study were to investigate the physical, mechanical, and corrosive properties of various MCC loadings (0, 3, 6, 9, 12 and 15 wt%) reinforced UPE applied on metal substrates and determine the effect of silane treatment (MCC-APTES) on MCC reinforcement used in UPE-MCC coating for primer application. The coating properties were studied for adhesion, mechanical and corrosive properties using pencil hardness, adhesion tape and immersion tests. At 6% MCC-APTES loading showed improvement in mechanical and adhesion properties at 6H grade and less than 5 % pull out test for pencil hardness and adhesion tests respectively. Whilst the immersion test demonstrated that at 6% MCC-APTES of loading gives optimum corrosion resistant where no corrosion found as compared to the control sample as supported by the improved interaction shown in FTIR spectrum. Therefore, it was evidenced that at 6% of MCC-APTES has significant potential as a reinforcement filler and promotes enhanced mechanical, adhesion, and corrosion properties as compared to other formulations.
subject: Polymer and Composite/Textile
  topic: section
subject: Polyester Primer Coating
  topic: keywords
subject: Microcrystalline Cellulose
  topic: keywords
subject: APTES Silane Coupling Agent
  topic: keywords
subject: Immersion Test
  topic: keywords
creator: Adzrie Baharudin
creator: Zuliahani Ahmad
creator: Ayu Azellia Anuar
creator: Nur Dina Adlina Azmani
creator: Angelene Betsy Mura
creator: Siti Hana Humaira Rustam
creator: Muhamed Syaheen Azhar
creator: Siti Nor Din
rights: Copyright (c) 2025 Adzrie Baharudin, Zuliahani Ahmad, Ayu Azellia Anuar, Nur Dina Adlina Azmani, Angelene Betsy Mura, Siti Hana Humaira Rustam, Muhamed Syaheen Azhar, Siti Nor Din https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
date: 2025-02-27
publication date: 2025-02-27
starting page: 67
ending page: 81
doi: 10.24191/srj.v22i1.17279

Effect of Different Preparation Approaches on Pt-Modified TiO2/g-C3N4 for Effective Photocatalytic Degradation of RR4 Dye Under Visible Light
type: item
description: This study investigates the effectiveness of TiO2/g-C3N4/Pt composites prepared under different methods for photocatalytic dye degradation in wastewater. Initially, the TiO2/g-C3N4 composite was prepared by dry and wet methods at different ratios. Both methods involved mixing P25 and g-C3N4, followed by calcination at 550 oC for 2 h with a heating rate of 5 oC/min in a tube furnace. To fabricate TiO2/g-C3N4/Pt, platinum (Pt) was deposited onto the TiO2/g-C3N4 wet composite using the photo deposition method. Reactive Red 4 (RR4) dyes were used as model pollutants to examine the photocatalytic activity of TiO2/g-C3N4/Pt. The structural, optical, and photoelectrochemical properties of this prepared sample TiO2/g-C3N4/Pt were further investigated in detail. Characterization was performed by X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier transform attenuated total reflectance (FTIR-ATR), and UV-vis diffuse reflectance spectroscopy (UV-Vis DRS). XRD analysis showed characteristic peaks at 13.2° and 27.3° for g-C3N4. In FTIR, functional groups present in TiO2/g-C3N4/Pt (TC-Pt) were observed for NH2 and OH around 3300 cm-1 to 3700 cm-1, C-N at 1650 cm-1, C=N at 1200 cm-1 and triazine ring at 801 cm-1. Based on UV-Vis Analysis, TC-Pt shows a more absorption edge toward visible light, indicating a reduced band gap from 2.80 eV to 1.6 eV. For PEC analysis, LSV, EIS, and CA demonstrated that TC-Pt has high current density under light, low charge transfer resistance under light, and high photocurrent response, respectively. For photocatalytic degradation, all modified samples degraded over 80% of RR4 dye within 1 h of light irradiation. Among the samples, TC-Pt with 1.5% Pt loading exhibits the highest degradation reaction rate constant with a value of 0.0708 min-1.
subject: Coordination Chemistry/Catalyst
  topic: section
subject: Wet
  topic: keywords
subject: Dry
  topic: keywords
subject: Photodeposition
  topic: keywords
subject: Reactive red 4 dye
  topic: keywords
subject: P25
  topic: keywords
creator: Rahil Azhar
creator: Nurul Izzati Jahari
creator: Nurul Izzah Roslan
creator: Nur Syamimi Mohamad Abdul Adzis
creator: Nur Hidayatul Syazwani Suhaimi
creator: Nur Izzati Nabilah Zanal
creator: Mohamad Afiq Rosli
creator: Nor Azlian Abdul Manaf
creator: Wan Izhan Nawawi Ismail
rights: Copyright (c) 2025 Rahil Azhar, Nurul Izzati Jahari, Nurul Izzah Roslan, Nur Syamimi Mohamad Abdul Adzis, Nur Hidayatul Syazwani Suhaimi, Nur Izzati Nabilah Zanal, Mohamad Afiq Rosli, Nor Azlian Abdul Manaf, Wan Izhan Nawawi Ismail https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0
date: 2025-08-26
publication date: 2025-08-26
starting page: 151
ending page: 172
doi: 10.24191/srj.v22i2.31241