Science Letters
type: channel
description: The Science Letters (ScL) (ISSN: 1675-7785, e-ISSN: 2682-8626) is is a double-blind peer-reviewed, open-access, and biannually online-published (January and June) international journal for the complete coverage of all topics in science and technology-related areas. Science Letters aims to be recognized as an important forum for researchers from academic and private arenas to exchange the latest results from research, especially in science and technology, in a broad sense, both original papers and reviews. PUBLICATION IS FREE OF CHARGE. ScL is indexed in Google Scholar, MyJurnal and MyCite. Please visit our official website at https://scilett-fsg.uitm.edu.my/. CLICK HERE TO SUBMIT MANUSCRIPT
publisher: UiTM Press
language: en
publication name: Science Letters
issn: 1675-7785
items: Influence of Agar and Konjac on the Quality and Stability of Coffea liberica–Infused Marshmallows
items: Degradation Kinetics and Antioxidant Capacity Study of Suji Leaves Extract (Dracaena angustifolia)
items: Enhancing Xylitol Production Via Recombinant Escherichia coli: A Box-Behnken Design Approach
items: Optimal Effective Carrier Barrier Height of the AlGaN-based Deep-Ultraviolet Light-Emitting Diode through the Wedge-shaped Electron Blocking Layer
items: Adsorption Behavior During Decolorization of Crude Glycerin Solution
items: Self-Healing Natural Rubber (NR) Based on Zinc Diacrylate (ZDA) Networks
items: Mobile Application for Stunting Recognition Education Using Video-Based Learning Method
items: Comparison of Dimensional Accuracy and Surface Quality of 3D Printed Parts from Various Slicing Software and Infill Patterns
items: Simulation of AlGaN-based DUV-LED with The Variation of Step Al-graded QWs Configuration
items: Artificial Neural Network (ANN)-Based Classification of Photocatalytic Dye Degradation Utilizing MATLAB
items: Unveiling Polypropylene's Repetitive Recycling Potential at High Temperatures
items: Phytochemistry, Cytoprotective and Anti-Inflammatory Effects of Myrmecodia platytyrea Ethyl Acetate Extract on Lipopolysaccharide-induced RAW 264.7 Cells
items: Optimizing Garlic Oil Extraction: A Comparison of Microwave Heating and Traditional Drying Method
items: Condition Based Monitoring of Railway Tracks using Metal Magnetic Memory (MMM)
items: Ground Point Removal From 3D Point Cloud Using 3d Ransac Based on Normal Vector
items: Prevalence and antimicrobial resistance of Escherichia coli isolated from Ramadan bazaar in Kuching, Sarawak
items: A Comprehensive Review: Assessing Crumb Rubber Integration in Bitumen for Road Construction
items: Tensile and Morphological Properties of Biodegradable Composites Reinforced with Kenaf Core Fibres
items: A 3D Point Cloud Human Body Parts Segmentation Using U- Net Based on Spherical Projection
items: The Protective Effects of Baeckea frutescens Leaves Ethanolic Extract Against Cisplatin-induced Cell Death in Liver Cells
items: Harnessing Biofilms: Unlocking the Potential of Lignocellulose for Sustainable Bioethanol Production
items: Antibacterial Activity of Probiotics Isolated from Commercialized Yogurt Against Pathogenic Bacteria
items: Microbial Dysbiosis and Immune–Barrier Interactions in Atopic Dermatitis: A Review
items: Phytochemical Analysis of Volatile Compounds from Two Varieties of Leucaena Leucocephala (Taramba and Wondergraze) Using Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS) Method
items: The Detection of five mycotoxins in cocoa bean and its products with QuEChERS Method using Ultra High-Performance Liquid Chromatography Quadrupole-Time-of-Flight Mass Spectrometry.
items: Antibiofilm and antibacterial properties of Streptococcus and Staphylococcus from the oral microbiome
items: Mass-Spectrometry Phytochemical Profiling of Etlingera coccinea (Blume) S. Sakai & Nagam from Sabah
items: Determination of Macronutrients and Trace Elements in Potential Nickel Hyperaccumulators from Ultramafic Areas in Sabah using Atomic Spectroscopic Analysis
items: The Potential of Local Microalgae Isolates in Biotechnological Applications
items: Unmasking Microplastic Pollution: A Study on the Distribution and Impact of Microplastics in Yuehai Lake, China

Influence of Agar and Konjac on the Quality and Stability of Coffea liberica–Infused Marshmallows
type: item
description: This study investigated the physicochemical effects of incorporating agar and konjac powders into Coffea liberica–infused marshmallows as alternatives to gelatin, addressing dietary preferences such as halal and vegan requirements. Various analyses, including total phenolic content (TPC), texture profile, color, moisture content, water activity, and scanning electron microscopy (SEM), were conducted during storage. Results showed that marshmallows containing Coffea liberica had higher TPC, with MKAC exhibiting the highest value (0.8740 mg GAE/g) compared to the gelatin control (0.2294 mg GAE/g). Texture profile parameters, including hardness, gumminess, chewiness, and resilience, increased consistently across all formulations during six days of storage. Color analysis revealed a strong positive correlation (r = 0.977) between hydrocolloid b* values and marshmallow lightness (L*). Significant differences (p < 0.05) were observed in moisture content, whereas water activity showed no significant variation (p > 0.05) throughout storage. SEM analysis distinguished hydrocolloid-based samples by differences in surface roughness, smoothness, and pore distribution. Overall, agar and konjac powders, together with Coffea liberica, significantly influenced the physicochemical properties of marshmallows, offering potential as plant-based alternatives for the confectionery industry.
subject: Articles
  topic: section
creator: Aisya Azlee
creator: Eng Keng Seow
rights: Copyright (c) 2025 Aisya Azlee, Eng Keng Seow https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
date: 2026-01-02
publication date: 2026-01-02
starting page: 115
ending page: 128
doi: 10.24191/scl.v20i1.8697

Degradation Kinetics and Antioxidant Capacity Study of Suji Leaves Extract (Dracaena angustifolia)
type: item
description: Synthetic colorants, prized for their diverse colors, homogeneity, and cost-effectiveness, are highly stable under various environmental conditions. Despite these advantages, health concerns have fueled a growing interest in natural alternatives. This study employs Dracaena angustifolia, a pigment-rich plant that produces green extracts suitable for food. The study aimed to determine the stability of Suji leaf extracts through degradation kinetics analysis and assess the physicochemical properties over four weeks. Optimal conditions for colorant stability were identified based on the concept of degradation kinetic concept, which measures absorbance at different pH levels and temperatures. The physicochemical properties studied over four-weekend the antioxidant capacity, total phenolic, color in color, and chlo, prophyll content for both Suji leaves exleaf (Dracaena angustifolia) and synthetic powder colourantcolorantse four weeks, an inverse relationship was observed between the DPPH scavenging effect and total phenolic content. A decrease in total phenolic content and an increase in IC50 values in the Suji leaf extract suggested a potential weakening of its antioxidant capacity. Additionally, the Suji leaves extract exhibited significantly higher chlorophyll content but lower color intensity and stability than synthetic powder, positively correlating with total phenolic content. The degradation kinetics study revealed that Suji leaf extract was the most stable at pH 7.0 and 4°C. In contrast, the synthetic powder colorants showed optimal stability at pH 4.5 and 40°C. These findings and in-depth research underscore the potential of Suji leaf extract as a stable and natural colourant, particularly in the food industry, replacing synthetic powder colorants.
subject: Articles
  topic: section
subject: Antioxidant
  topic: keywords
subject: Natural Colourant
  topic: keywords
subject: Synthetic Colourant
  topic: keywords
subject: Degradation Study
  topic: keywords
creator: Rumaisya Yasmin Mohd Nazri
creator: Adi Md Sikin
creator: Wan Saidatul Syida Wan Kamarudin
rights: Copyright (c) 2025 Rumaisya Yasmin Mohd Nazri, Adi Md Sikin , Wan Saidatul Syida Wan Kamarudin https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
date: 2024-10-28
publication date: 2024-10-28
starting page: 141
ending page: 148
doi: 10.24191/scl.v18i4.9727

Enhancing Xylitol Production Via Recombinant Escherichia coli: A Box-Behnken Design Approach
type: item
description: To enhance xylitol production while addressing the inefficiencies of conventional methods, this study explores the use of genetically modified Escherichia coli BL21 (DE3). Utilizing glucose as the primary substrate, this research capitalizes on the metabolic versatility of E. coli to convert glucose, a readily available and cost-effective sugar, into xylitol. This process harnesses the potential of microbial synthesis for xylitol, a sugar alcohol significant for its dental health benefits and non-caloric nature. Production process optimization was conducted through Response Surface Methodology (RSM) integrated with a Box-Behnken Design (BBD). This approach facilitated the systematic evaluation of three key culture conditions: post-induction temperature (36.2°C), pH (7.2), and agitation rate (184.1 rpm). The optimization resulted in a substantial 2.7-fold increase in xylitol concentration, achieving up to 1.60 g/L. The model's effectiveness was validated by a high coefficient of determination (R² = 0.9847), emphasizing the predictive accuracy and robustness of the experimental design. This study demonstrates an economically and environmentally sustainable method for xylitol production. It advances the field of microbial engineering, underscoring the critical role of integrating advanced genetic modifications with process optimization for efficient biochemical production.
subject: Articles
  topic: section
subject: Escherichia coli
  topic: keywords
subject: Xylitol
  topic: keywords
subject: Optimization
  topic: keywords
subject: Response Surface Methodology
  topic: keywords
creator: Iffah Nazihah Mustaffa
creator: Zanariah Hashim
rights: Copyright (c) 2025 Iffah Nazihah Mustaffa, Zanariah Hashim https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
date: 2024-10-28
publication date: 2024-10-28
starting page: 133
ending page: 140
doi: 10.24191/scl.v18i4.9722

Optimal Effective Carrier Barrier Height of the AlGaN-based Deep-Ultraviolet Light-Emitting Diode through the Wedge-shaped Electron Blocking Layer
type: item
description: This work demonstrates the enhancement of luminescence intensity of aluminium gallium nitride (AlGaN)-based deep-ultraviolet light-emitting diode (DUV-LED) via the wedge-shaped electron blocking layer (W-EBL). The AlGaN-based DUV-LED suffers from low luminescence intensity emitted by the device due to electron overflow and minimal hole injection. Utilising the W-EBL in the epitaxy layers with an optimal effective barrier height structure can reduce the overflowing electron and increase the transportation of hole into the active region. The increment in confinement of carrier in the multiple quantum well (MQW) increased the radiative recombination rates and boosted the luminescence intensity of the DUV-LED by 48%.
subject: Articles
  topic: section
subject: Deep-ultraviolet light-emitting diode
  topic: keywords
subject: Electron blocking layer
  topic: keywords
subject: Luminescence spectrum
  topic: keywords
subject: Radiative recombination rates
  topic: keywords
creator: Mohammad Amirul Hairol Aman
creator: Nurul Fathinah Azrisham
creator: Ahmad Nadzimuddin Nazmi
creator: Ahmad Fakhrurrazi Ahmad Noorden
rights: Copyright (c) 2025 Mohammad Amirul Hairol Aman, Nurul Fathinah Azrisham, Ahmad Nadzimuddin Nazmi, Ahmad Fakhrurrazi Ahmad Noorden https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
date: 2024-10-28
publication date: 2024-10-28
starting page: 125
ending page: 132
doi: 10.24191/scl.v18i4.9714

Adsorption Behavior During Decolorization of Crude Glycerin Solution
type: item
description: Crude glycerin, a by-product of the transesterification of oleochemicals, undergoes several processes to recover glycerine, which is commercially used in many daily personal care products. Crude glycerin is typically brown due to the solution's presence of lignin, tannin, and organic matter. This study uses sewage sludge as an adsorbent to decolorize crude glycerin through an adsorption process. Initially, the crude glycerin and the prepared adsorbent will be characterized using Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) for functional groups, color concentration with UV-visible spectroscopy (UV-Vis), and particle size distribution using a Particle Size Analyzer (PSA). The adsorption behavior was elucidated at different agitation speeds (62.5 rpm, 125 rpm, and 250 rpm), adsorbent dosages (10 g/L, 20 g/L, and 30 g/L), and particle sizes of the adsorbent (100 microns, 200 microns, and 300 microns). The color intensity before and after adsorption was analyzed using UV-Vis spectroscopy, and the absorbance was used to determine the percentage of color removal. The findings showed that the optimum color removal from crude glycerin was achieved at 125 rpm agitation speed, 30 g/L adsorbent dosage, and 100 microns of adsorbent particle size, with 33.4%, 40.8%, and 40.2% of removal, respectively. At a 125 rpm agitation speed, the Langmuir isotherm fit the experimental data with KL­­​ and qmax values of 0.0028 L/mg and 8.25 mg/g, respectively. The Freundlich isotherm could describe the adsorption process at 30 g/L adsorbent dosage with KF and 1/n values of 0.142 mg/g and 0.135, respectively. Additionally, the experimental findings using 100 microns of adsorbent fit well with the Langmuir isotherm, with KL​ and qmax​ values of 0.057 L/mg and 0.246 mg/g, respectively.
subject: Articles
  topic: section
subject: adsorption
  topic: keywords
subject: crude glycerin
  topic: keywords
subject: decolorization
  topic: keywords
subject: oleochemical
  topic: keywords
subject: sewage sludge
  topic: keywords
creator: Indok Nurul Hasyimah Mohd Amin
creator: Nursyakirah Ahmad Suhaimi
rights: Copyright (c) 2025 Indok Nurul Hasyimah Mohd Amin, Nursyakirah Ahmad Suhaimi https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
date: 2024-10-28
publication date: 2024-10-28
starting page: 116
ending page: 124
doi: 10.24191/scl.v18i4.9712

Self-Healing Natural Rubber (NR) Based on Zinc Diacrylate (ZDA) Networks
type: item
description: Rubber product waste has an impact on the environment that goes beyond landfills. Due to the long degradation phase of rubber materials, improper disposal can lead to the release of potentially hazardous substances and environmental pollution. Self-healing offers an alternative to investing in environmentally manufactured products to reduce these harmful environmental effects. Zinc diacrylate was grafted into natural rubber as a self-healing substance. This study aimed to examine the effect of zinc diacrylate, as a self-healing agent, on the properties of zinc diacrylate grafted natural rubber. The tensile properties of the cured rubber were tested before and after the healing process to determine the healing efficiency of the zinc diacrylate grafted natural rubber, and it achieved 72% healing efficiency. The crosslink density test findings indicate that the covalent crosslink density increased with increasing zinc diacrylate content. In contrast, the ionic crosslinking increased with increasing zinc diacrylate content until it reached a maximum value at NR/10ZDA and decreased at 20 phr of zinc diacrylate. Covalent and reversible ionic interactions were present in NR/10ZDA and NR/20ZDA. FESEM images corroborated the results, showing that NR with 10 phr of zinc diacrylate had the best tensile strength, elongation at break, and self-healing ability. The fractured contact surface of NR/10 ZDA revealed no discernible gap, indicative of a highly effective self-repairing process. This study demonstrates zinc diacrylate’s potential as a self-healing agent that could render a new era of ecologically friendly rubber goods.
subject: Articles
  topic: section
subject: Natural rubber
  topic: keywords
subject: Zinc diacrylate
  topic: keywords
subject: Self-healing
  topic: keywords
subject: Crosslink density
  topic: keywords
subject: Ionic crosslink
  topic: keywords
creator: Nurul Fatihah Ismadi
creator: Nurul Aizan Mohd Zaini
creator: Dalina Samsudin
creator: Faiezah Hashim
creator: Zainathul Akhmar Salim Abdul Salim Abdul Salim
rights: Copyright (c) 2025 Nurul Fatihah Ismadi, Nurul Aizan Mohd Zaini, Dalina Samsudin, Faiezah Hashim, Zainathul Akhmar Salim Abdul Salim Abdul Salim https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
date: 2024-10-28
publication date: 2024-10-28
starting page: 108
ending page: 115
doi: 10.24191/scl.v18i4.9693

Mobile Application for Stunting Recognition Education Using Video-Based Learning Method
type: item
description: Stunting is a nutritional problem in Indonesia that negatively impacts children's capacity for growth and development. The importance of stunting education in Indonesia is highly emphasized because stunting is very prevalent in Indonesia. The observation activities found that many parents did not know about the use of stunting applications, and 98 children experienced stunting. This research aims to design mobile android-based stunting learning media using material sources taken from stunting books and journals. The learning media concept is created in the form of video-based learning. The waterfall research model includes requirements, design, implementation, testing, and maintenance. The testing carried out in this research consisted of black box testing, and software functionality was able to run well and was declared successful. In contrast, for material testing, after being calculated on a Likert scale, the result was 96,9% and got an excellent score, same as learning media testing, which reached a mark of 94,8% and got an excellent score, same integrated healthcare center (posyandu) mothers for user testing. It received a score of 95.8% based on the results, which concluded that the testing of this application was excellent and was used as a learning medium for parents to understand stunting.
subject: Articles
  topic: section
subject: Stunting
  topic: keywords
subject: Android
  topic: keywords
subject: Video-based Learning
  topic: keywords
subject: Education mobile app
  topic: keywords
creator: Khoirunnisa Larasati
creator: Faisal Reza Pradhana
creator: Dihin Muriyatmoko
creator: Muhammad Alwi Yusron
creator: Lulu’ Luthfiyah
rights: Copyright (c) 2025 Khoirunnisa Larasati, Faisal Reza Pradhana, Dihin Muriyatmoko, Muhammad Alwi Yusron, Lulu’ Luthfiyah https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
date: 2024-10-28
publication date: 2024-10-28
starting page: 98
ending page: 107
doi: 10.24191/scl.v18i4.9692

Comparison of Dimensional Accuracy and Surface Quality of 3D Printed Parts from Various Slicing Software and Infill Patterns
type: item
description: Fused Filament Fabrication (FFF) is a subcategory of Additive Manufacturing (AM). FFF is also widely used in 3D printing technology with the globally known AM. To accommodate the rapid growth, numerous research studies and developments have contributed to the significant achievement of FFF. For example, many slicing software applications are available to provide better-quality printed parts. The purpose of slicing software is to instruct the 3D printer to perform operations. Therefore, selecting the best slicing software among various options is crucial. In this article, a comparative study of dimensional accuracy and surface quality of 3D printed parts from various slicing software (Ultimaker Cura, PrusaSlicer, and CraftWare Pro) and infill patterns (line, grid, and gyroid) was conducted. Dimensional accuracy was measured based on the dimensional error recorded by the printed parts to the designed dimension. Meanwhile, the surface quality was measured based on the surface roughness value recorded from the printed parts. The lowest surface roughness was suggested as a better surface quality product. From the study conducted, it can be concluded that Ultimaker Cura produced better dimensional accuracy compared to PrusaSlicer and CraftWare Pro. In addition, the infill pattern did not affect the dimensional accuracy of the produced part. In contrast, the infill pattern affected the slicing software selection for surface quality. A line pattern using CraftWare Pro is recommended to produce better surface quality. Meanwhile, Ultimaker Cura is ideal for generating grid infill patterns, whereas PrusaSlicer is recommended for gyroid infill patterns.
subject: Articles
  topic: section
subject: Fused Filament Fabrication (FFF)
  topic: keywords
subject: Dimensional accuracy
  topic: keywords
subject: Surface quality
  topic: keywords
subject: Infill pattern
  topic: keywords
subject: Slicing software
  topic: keywords
creator: Normariah Che Maideen
creator: Koay Mei Hyie
creator: Nor Azirah Mohd Fohimi
creator: Nor Suhada Abdullah
creator: Lyvanrick Slyvaris Jumly
creator: Shuib Sahudin
creator: Hamid Yusoff
rights: Copyright (c) 2025 Normariah Che Maideen, Koay Mei Hyie, Nor Azirah Mohd Fohimi, Nor Suhada Abdullah, Lyvanrick Slyvaris Jumly, Shuib Sahudin, Hamid Yusoff https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
date: 2024-10-28
publication date: 2024-10-28
starting page: 90
ending page: 97
doi: 10.24191/scl.v18i4.9686

Simulation of AlGaN-based DUV-LED with The Variation of Step Al-graded QWs Configuration
type: item
description: Analysis of aluminum composition grading is presented to enhance the efficiency of AlGaN-based deep ultraviolet light emitting diodes (DUV-LEDs). The optical performance of LEDs with varying quantum well (QW) thickness and aluminum composition grading were examined through drift-diffusion simulations. All LEDs featured step-graded QWs from 0.43 to 0.45 aluminum composition and have a total QW thickness of 3 nm, with thickness variations occurring at different aluminum composition gradings. Compared to LEDs with 0.5 nm and 1 nm QW thickness at an aluminum composition grading of 0.43, the LED with 1.5 nm demonstrated a high internal quantum efficiency (IQE) of 53.06%. The LED emitted at 283.327 nm. This design mitigated polarization effects, enhanced carrier injection efficiency, and improved carrier transport within QWs. This, in turn, increased the radiative recombination rates and luminescence intensity of the LEDs.
subject: Articles
  topic: section
subject: Deep-ultraviolet light-emitting diode
  topic: keywords
subject: Quantum well
  topic: keywords
subject: Carrier confinement
  topic: keywords
subject: Radiative recombination
  topic: keywords
subject: Internal quantum efficiency
  topic: keywords
creator: Wan Nur Amierha Wan Ibrahim
creator: Faris Azim Ahmad Fajri
creator: Mohammad Amirul Hairol Aman
creator: Ahmad Fakhrurrazi Ahmad Noorden
rights: Copyright (c) 2025 Wan Nur Amierha Wan Ibrahim, Faris Azim Ahmad Fajri, Mohammad Amirul Hairol Aman, Ahmad Fakhrurrazi Ahmad Noorden https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
date: 2024-10-28
publication date: 2024-10-28
starting page: 80
ending page: 89
doi: 10.24191/scl.v18i4.9683

Artificial Neural Network (ANN)-Based Classification of Photocatalytic Dye Degradation Utilizing MATLAB
type: item
description: This study applied MATLAB-based artificial neural network (ANN) methods to predict photocatalytic dye degradation. Standard experimental techniques need help to capture process complexity, hindering accurate predictions. Leveraging machine learning, specifically ANN, and optimal design and input variables, this research overcame challenges to create a prediction model. Real-life data were used to evaluate the model's accuracy, offering valuable insights into effective and affordable wastewater treatment approaches. The Levenberg-Marquardt (LM) algorithm wasemployed in this study's ANN architecture and was well-suited to non-linear regression problems. Experimental data on photocatalytic dye degradation were used as real-life data that serve as the basis for evaluating the accuracy and performance of the prediction model. The results showed that the ANN models performed well, with R2 values ranging from 0.9917 to 0.99814 in training, validation, and testing for the selected structure (3-10-1) predictions for photocatalytic dye degradation. This study successfully developed a highly accurate ANN model for predictingphotocatalytic dye degradation during wastewater treatment, demonstrating machine learning’s promising potential for optimizing such environmental processes.
subject: Articles
  topic: section
subject: photocatalytic degradation
  topic: keywords
subject: Artificial Neural Network
  topic: keywords
subject: prediction model
  topic: keywords
subject: wastewater
  topic: keywords
creator: Mohd Arif Effandi Samawi
creator: Mohd Fadhil Majnis
creator: Mohd Azam Mohd Adnan
rights: Copyright (c) 2025 Mohd Arif Effandi Samawi, Mohd Fadhil Majnis, Mohd Azam Mohd Adnan https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
date: 2024-10-28
publication date: 2024-10-28
starting page: 69
ending page: 79
doi: 10.24191/scl.v18i4.9674

Unveiling Polypropylene's Repetitive Recycling Potential at High Temperatures
type: item
description: Polypropylene (PP) is renowned for its lightweight, chemical stability, hygienic properties, and low cost, making it a valuable material in many applications. However, improper disposal of PP presents significant environmental hazards. One of the efforts made to reduce plastic pollution is through recycling. The semi-crystalline behavior of PP is prone to degradation in its mechanical performance, especially when the plastic undergoes a high-temperature reheating process. This study investigated the degradation limits of recycled PP produced from injection molding from the 15th to 19th cycles at two different temperatures, namely 220 °C and 240 °C. A comparison of the tensile and bending properties of the recycled product was made for these two temperatures to determine the maximum limit of PP degradation. When recycling began at the 15th cycle, there was a significant reduction in tensile and bending properties compared to the original PP. Subsequently, the degradation rate was relatively slow from the 15th to the 19th cycles. As the recycling temperature increased, it was found that the degradation of yield strength became more severe. The decrease in bending strength could be more pronounced with the effect of temperature. The color transformation of recycled PP, resulting from the chain scission effect, contributed to the deterioration of its mechanical properties. Thus, industrial users must consider the down-cycling resilience to extend PP recycling beyond 15 cycles.
subject: Articles
  topic: section
subject: polypropylene
  topic: keywords
subject: recycling
  topic: keywords
subject: mechanical
  topic: keywords
subject: injection moulding
  topic: keywords
subject: temperature
  topic: keywords
creator: Koay Mei Hyie
creator: Nor Suhada Abdullah
creator: Hamid Yusoff
creator: Normariah Che Maideen
creator: Nor Azirah Fohimi
creator: Mohd Hidayat Wajdi Abu Seman
rights: Copyright (c) 2025 Koay Mei Hyie, Nor Suhada Abdullah, Hamid Yusoff, Normariah Che Maideen, Nor Azirah Fohimi, Mohd Hidayat Wajdi Abu Seman https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
date: 2024-10-28
publication date: 2024-10-28
starting page: 60
ending page: 68
doi: 10.24191/scl.v18i4.9672

Phytochemistry, Cytoprotective and Anti-Inflammatory Effects of Myrmecodia platytyrea Ethyl Acetate Extract on Lipopolysaccharide-induced RAW 264.7 Cells
type: item
description: Inflammation is a hallmark pathology for many diseases, including cancer, diabetes mellitus, atherosclerosis, and neurodegeneration. Myrmecodia platytyrea(Rubiaceae), an epiphytic plant native to Southeast Asia, Australasia, and Papua Island, has been investigated for its ethnomedicinal applications. However, the potential effects of ethyl acetate extract from M. platytyrea against inflammation are yet to be widely studied. This present study sought to evaluate the phytochemical components of M. platytyrea ethyl acetate extract and investigate its cytoprotective and anti-inflammatory effects on RAW 264.7 cells. Phytochemical screening was performed based on standard qualitative tests, while the IC50 value of the extract in RAW 264.7 cells was determined using the 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyl-2H-tetrazolium bromide (MTT) method. Subsequently, RAW 264.7 cells were pretreated with various extract concentrations (2, 4, and 8 µg/mL) and induced with 1 µg/mL lipopolysaccharide (LPS) for 24 h. The effect of the extract on cell viability and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) levels were measured using MTT and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), respectively. Phytochemical screening identified the presence of alkaloids, phenolics, flavonoids, terpenoids, and phytosterols in the extract. The extract displayed moderate cytotoxicity against RAW 264.7 cells, with an IC50 value of 61.53 ± 1.26 μg/mL. It protected RAW 264.7 cells against LPS-induced cell growth inhibition and significantly reduced TNF-α levels dose-dependently. As a result, this study demonstrated the potential of M. platytyrea as a natural source for developing a therapeutic agent for inflammation-related diseases.
subject: Articles
  topic: section
subject: Inflammation
  topic: keywords
subject: Cytotoxicity
  topic: keywords
subject: Phytochemistry
  topic: keywords
subject: Myrmecodia platytyrea
  topic: keywords
subject: TNF-α
  topic: keywords
creator: Aisyah Jaafar
creator: Aisyah Hasyila Jahidin
creator: Fazleen Haslinda Mohd Hatta
creator: Nurul Alimah Abdul Nasir
creator: Mizaton Hazizul Hasan
rights: Copyright (c) 2025 Aisyah Jaafar, Aisyah Hasyila Jahidin, Fazleen Haslinda Mohd Hatta, Nurul Alimah Abdul Nasir, Mizaton Hazizul Hasan https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
date: 2024-10-28
publication date: 2024-10-28
starting page: 50
ending page: 59
doi: 10.24191/scl.v18i4.9671

Optimizing Garlic Oil Extraction: A Comparison of Microwave Heating and Traditional Drying Method
type: item
description: Pre-treatment, such as drying, is important in producing high-quality essential oil from plants. Due to a lack of pre-processing treatment, heavy losses are incurred in terms of both the quality and quantity of garlic oil. These losses could be attributed to respiration, transpiration, or microbiological spoilage. This study aimed to investigate the effect of oven drying and microwave heating on the oil yield of garlic. The nutraceutical industry is currently keen on obtaining garlic extracts using mild extraction processes to recover high levels of labile allicin. Therefore, the oil is extracted using a modern method, microwave-assisted extraction (MAE). In this study, MAE was conducted to determine the optimum extraction conditions, including extraction time and sample-to-solvent ratio, to achieve the highest yield of garlic oil. MAE can significantly reduce extraction time and solvent consumption compared to conventional methods such as solvent extraction and maceration. Based on the results obtained, garlic heated using a microwave yielded a higher oil yield than oven-dried garlic, with percentages of 11.18% and 6.78%, respectively. The best extraction time using MAE was found to be 20 minutes, and the optimal sample-to-solvent ratio was 1:1.5. Moreover, the efficiency of extraction obtained from microwave-heated garlic exceeded that of oven-dried garlic, with percentages of 31.94% and 12.91%, respectively.
subject: Articles
  topic: section
subject: Efficiency
  topic: keywords
subject: Extraction
  topic: keywords
subject: Microwave heating
  topic: keywords
subject: Oven drying
  topic: keywords
subject: Garlic
  topic: keywords
subject: Traditional
  topic: keywords
creator: Syahril Ishmir Hasim
creator: Sitinoor Adeib Idris
rights: Copyright (c) 2025 Syahril Ishmir Hasim, Sitinoor Adeib Idris https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
date: 2025-11-26
publication date: 2025-11-26
starting page: 43
ending page: 49
doi: 10.24191/scl.v18i4.9670

Condition Based Monitoring of Railway Tracks using Metal Magnetic Memory (MMM)
type: item
description: This paper presents condition-based monitoring of railway tracks using Metal Magnetic Memory (MMM). Railway tracks face extreme conditions due to the effects of speed and high temperatures caused by train wheels. The focus was on inspecting the rail tracks to detect defects and wear. Non-Destructive Testing (NDT) techniques are needed for early detection of failures, especially in stress concentration zones, particularly to detect micro-cracks and fatigue damage. Conventional rail track inspection methods are visual, and there needs to be more automated equipment. Most NDT techniques struggle to maintain a constant distance between the sensor and the rail surface under real conditions. This study assesses the effectiveness of Metal Magnetic Memory (MMM) technology in determining locations with high magnetic stress, which would be prone to rail material deformation. MMM data was collected on new and used rail tracks to evaluate its capability to detect locations with higher magnetic stress. The comparative results demonstrated that MMM can effectively detect locations with high magnetic stress on used rail tracks.
subject: Articles
  topic: section
subject: Railway
  topic: keywords
subject: Metal Magnetic Memory
  topic: keywords
subject: NDT
  topic: keywords
subject: Condition Based Monitoring
  topic: keywords
creator: Mohd Arif Mat Norman
creator: Syed Mahathir Al-Attas
creator: Mazian Mohammad
creator: Jamaluddin Mahmud
rights: Copyright (c) 2025 Mohd Arif Mat Norman, Syed Mahathir Al-Attas, Mazian Mohammad, Jamaluddin Mahmud https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
date: 2025-11-26
publication date: 2025-11-26
starting page: 36
ending page: 42
doi: 10.24191/scl.v18i4.9669

Ground Point Removal From 3D Point Cloud Using 3d Ransac Based on Normal Vector
type: item
description: Capturing objects in the real world using Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) is challenging due to the existence of ground points. The ground point tends to reduce the performance of computer vision-related tasks such as object recognition, detection, segmentation, and classification. This paper proposes a ground removal method for 3D Point Cloud using Random Sample Consensus (RANSAC). RANSAC algorithm effectively removes ground points on normal vector-based 3D points cloud objects. RANSAC fits data models containing significant inliers. By selecting the coordinate points, followed by calculating plane equation coefficients using normal vectors, removal is done by calculating each point's distance from the ground plane and identifying inliers based on a specified threshold. This analysis shows that the RANSAC algorithm effectively removes ground points.
subject: Articles
  topic: section
subject: Point Cloud
  topic: keywords
subject: Ground Points
  topic: keywords
subject: RANSAC
  topic: keywords
subject: Normal Vector
  topic: keywords
subject: Outliers
  topic: keywords
creator: Muhammad Rifqi
creator: Dihin Muriyatmoko
creator: Oddy Virgantara Putra
rights: Copyright (c) 2025 Muhammad Rifqi, Dihin Muriyatmoko, Oddy Virgantara Putra https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
date: 2024-10-28
publication date: 2024-10-28
starting page: 29
ending page: 35
doi: 10.24191/scl.v18i4.9668

Prevalence and antimicrobial resistance of Escherichia coli isolated from Ramadan bazaar in Kuching, Sarawak
type: item
description: E. coli contamination is not in compliance with food safety international standards. As such, this study assessed the occurrence of E. coli contamination. The study also investigated multiple antibiotic resistance indices among E. coli isolates. A total of 194 food samples from six categories (beverages, sweet cakes, cooked meat/fish, cooked rice, cooked vegetables, and noodles) were analyzed to determine the E. coli count using a standard method. The results showed that 20% of the samples were contaminated with E. coli. Cooked rice showed the highest mean value of 3.785 ± 0.000 Log CFU/g. While noodles (2.344 ± 0.791 Log CFU/g) and beverages (2.002± 0.504 Log CFU/ml) have shown the most unsatisfactory level of E. coli among food categories. The multiple antibiotic resistance index of E. coli isolates in this study ranged from 0.12 to 0.59, and ampicillin showed the most resistance antibiotics. E. coli indicates the lack of good food handlers and hygiene practices, whereby consuming contaminated food may pose a risk of food poisoning.
subject: Articles
  topic: section
subject: Antimicrobial resistance
  topic: keywords
subject: Escherichia coli
  topic: keywords
subject: Microbiological quality
  topic: keywords
subject: Ramadan bazaar
  topic: keywords
subject: Street food
  topic: keywords
creator: Nurul Azyla Azmi
creator: Sharifah Aminah Syed Mohamad
creator: Abu Muslim Ahmad
creator: Najihah Mohd Sani
creator: Siti Roha Ab Mutalib
creator: Fazdlina Sapee
rights: Copyright (c) 2025 Nurul Azyla Azmi, Sharifah Aminah Syed Mohamad; Abu Muslim Ahmad; Najihah Mohd Sani, Siti Roha Ab Mutalib, Fazdlina Sapee https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
date: 2024-10-28
publication date: 2024-10-28
starting page: 21
ending page: 28
doi: 10.24191/scl.v18i4.9667

A Comprehensive Review: Assessing Crumb Rubber Integration in Bitumen for Road Construction
type: item
description: This review paper investigates the effectiveness of Crumb Rubber Modified Bitumen (CRMB) in the construction of roads, with an emphasis on its potential to enhance pavement quality and contribute to environmental sustainability. The primary goal of this study is to evaluate the effects of integrating crumb rubber, obtained from used tires, into bitumen. This addresses the rising issue of tyre waste and improves the structural integrity and durability of road surfaces. The research undertaken by numerous experts emphasizes the importance of high-quality pavements in ensuring stable, smooth, and safe pavement surfaces. Conventional pavements frequently deteriorate rapidly due to traffic loads and temperature fluctuations. However, adding CR to bitumen has been demonstrated to greatly reduce these concerns by increasing pavement durability and serviceability, prolonging its lifespan, and lowering maintenance requirements. The review summarizes results from multiple studies, emphasizing that CRMB consistently exhibits a higher softening point and lower penetration values compared to conventional bitumen. The wet mixing process for CRMB preparation involves heating bitumen and integrating CR at high temperatures to produce a homogeneous mixture. When combined with penetration and softening point testing, this procedure illustrates the increased stiffness and temperature resistance provided by CR. Based on the results gathered, CRMB substantially improves the properties of bitumen, thereby establishing the substance as a feasible alternative for upgrading the longevity and effectiveness of road infrastructure. The paper emphasizes the need for additional research to balance rigidity and flexibility in CRMB to accommodate diverse climatic challenges.
subject: Articles
  topic: section
subject: crumb rubber
  topic: keywords
subject: modified bitumen
  topic: keywords
subject: penetration test
  topic: keywords
subject: road construction
  topic: keywords
subject: softening point test
  topic: keywords
creator: Nurul Najihah Mad Rosni
creator: Noor Syafiqah Mohd Sabri
rights: Copyright (c) 2025 Nurul Najihah Mad Rosni, Noor Syafiqah Mohd Sabri https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
date: 2024-10-28
publication date: 2024-10-28
starting page: 12
ending page: 20
doi: 10.24191/scl.v18i4.9666

Tensile and Morphological Properties of Biodegradable Composites Reinforced with Kenaf Core Fibres
type: item
description: The combination of biodegradable polymers and affordable organic fillers has demonstrated efficacy in the production of economically viable composites, serving as a means to tackle environmental concerns and create products with enhanced mechanical characteristics. Poly (butylene adipate-co-terephthalate) (PBAT) is a high ductility and low crystallinity polymer. In the present research work, kenaf core reinforced composites were prepared via melt blending method using completely biodegradable PBAT. A polymer composite reinforced with 10wt %, 20wt %, and 30wt % amounts of kenaf core has been prepared and characterized for its tensile and morphological properties. The modulus of elasticity of all composites exhibited a higher value compared to the neat polymer, with the extent of improvement being dependent on the proportion of kenaf core incorporated. The PBAT composite with 30wt% kenaf core had a favorable modulus of elasticity, measuring 585 MPa. Morphological interpretation through scanning electron microscopy (SEM) reveals improved interaction and interfacial adhesion between PBAT and kenaf core. The distribution of the kenaf core inside the PBAT blend was uniform and consistent. The results reported in the present work support the idea that the above-mentioned natural fibers can be used as filler material to obtain environmentally friendly polymer composites with improved properties.
subject: Articles
  topic: section
subject: Biodegradable
  topic: keywords
subject: Kenaf core
  topic: keywords
subject: PBAT
  topic: keywords
subject: Tensile modulus
  topic: keywords
subject: Polymer composites
  topic: keywords
creator: Muhamad Haikal Hamdan
creator: Siti Noorbaini Sarmin
creator: Triana Harmini
creator: Oddy Virgantara Putra
rights: Copyright (c) 2025 Muhamad Haikal Hamdan, Siti Noorbaini Sarmin, Triana Harmini, Oddy Virgantara Putra https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
date: 2024-10-28
publication date: 2024-10-28
starting page: 7
ending page: 11
doi: 10.24191/scl.v18i4.9664

A 3D Point Cloud Human Body Parts Segmentation Using U- Net Based on Spherical Projection
type: item
description: Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) has become crucial in human activity recognition. LiDAR reflects and receives laser beams from humans, including surrounding objects, visualizing the reflected results as a 3D Point Cloud. This often faces challenges like object shape variations and noise that can cause overlap, hindering segmentation and object recognition accuracy. The spherical projection approach is used to address these issues. This paper proposes a spherical projection for the segmentation approach, which comes as an answer. The methodology employed in the study focuses on effectively partitioning data derived from LiDAR technology, leveraging a unique spherical projection technique. This innovative approach involves the transformation of a three-dimensional Point Cloud into a two-dimensional projection, facilitating more efficient segmentation processes. Integrating U-Net, a deep learning model recognized for its prowess in image segmentation tasks, aims to enhance the accuracy and precision of delineating human body parts from LiDAR-generated data. The proposed method contributes to advancing the segmentation technique field and highlights the potential applications of U-Net in LiDAR data preprocessing. The model achieved an accuracy of 99.74% and Intersection Over Union (IoU) results of 87.92%.
subject: Articles
  topic: section
subject: Lidar
  topic: keywords
subject: Point Cloud
  topic: keywords
subject: Segmentation
  topic: keywords
subject: Spherical Projection
  topic: keywords
subject: U-Net
  topic: keywords
creator: Hanafie Rizal Fathoni
creator: Triana Harmini
creator: Oddy Virgantara Putra
rights: Copyright (c) 2024 Hanafie Rizal Fathoni, Triana Harmini, Oddy Virgantara Putra https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
date: 2024-10-28
publication date: 2024-10-28
starting page: 1
ending page: 6
doi: 10.24191/scl.v18i4.9661

The Protective Effects of Baeckea frutescens Leaves Ethanolic Extract Against Cisplatin-induced Cell Death in Liver Cells
type: item
description: Cisplatin is a cytotoxic drug that is commonly used to treat bladder, ovarian and testicular cancer. While treatment using cisplatin is effective, its potential hepatotoxic effects require careful monitoring and management. Adjuvants may help mitigate these effects by protecting liver cells through the antioxidant property, thereby improving the overall treatment outcome. This study investigated the potential of Baeckea frutescens leaves ethanolic extract, to mitigate cisplatin-induced hepatotoxicity. Using the human liver cancer cell line HEP-G2 as an in vitro model, the cytoprotective effects of B. frutescens extract was evaluated against cisplatin-induced cell death. The extract was co-administered with cisplatin, and cell viability was measured using the MTT assay. The results demonstrate that B. frutescens extract significantly protected HEP-G2 cells from cisplatin-induced cell death in a dose-dependent manner ranging from 6.25 to 100 µg/ml against 10 µM cisplatin. This protective effect is likely attributed to the antioxidant properties of the extract, which can scavenge ROS and reduce oxidative stress. These findings suggest the potential of B. frutescens to be developed as adjuvant therapy to ameliorate cisplatin-induced hepatotoxicity, thereby improving the therapeutic index of Cisplatin. Importantly, further research is warranted to elucidate the precise molecular mechanisms underlying this protective effect and to evaluate its efficacy in vivo.
subject: Articles
  topic: section
subject: antioxidant properties
  topic: keywords
subject: Baeckea frutescens
  topic: keywords
subject: cisplatin
  topic: keywords
subject: HEP-G2 cells
  topic: keywords
subject: oxidative stress
  topic: keywords
creator: Nurhanani Ayub
creator: Siti Nur Munirah Ismail
creator: Salfarina Ramli
creator: Richard Johari James
creator: Mohammad Zulfadhly Jan Jam
creator: Hasseri Halim
rights: Copyright (c) 2025 Nurhanani Ayub, Siti Nur Munirah Ismail, Salfarina Ramli, Richard Johari James, Mohammad Zulfadhly Jan Jam, Hasseri Halim https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
date: 2026-01-02
publication date: 2026-01-02
starting page: 83
ending page: 94
doi: 10.24191/scl.v20i1.9657

Harnessing Biofilms: Unlocking the Potential of Lignocellulose for Sustainable Bioethanol Production
type: item
description: Bioethanol is a promising renewable energy source with the potential to reduce global reliance on fossil fuels and mitigate greenhouse gas emissions. Lignocellulose, a complex and abundant biomass composed of cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin, represents a sustainable feedstock for bioethanol production due to its widespread availability and non-competition with food resources. However, the efficient conversion of lignocellulose to bioethanol faces challenges, including the recalcitrance of its structure and the need for effective pretreatment, enzymatic hydrolysis, and fermentation processes. This review critically evaluates the role of microbial biofilms in enhancing lignocellulose-to-bioethanol conversion. It explores the potential of biofilms in improving pretreatment efficiency, facilitating enzymatic hydrolysis, and optimizing fermentation processes. Additionally, the review highlights the application of biofilms in enzyme immobilization and bioreactor design, emphasizing their ability to enhance process stability, productivity, and cost-effectiveness. By leveraging the unique properties of biofilms, this review provides insights into advancing bioethanol production from lignocellulosic biomass.
subject: Articles
  topic: section
subject: Bioethanol
  topic: keywords
subject: Biofilms
  topic: keywords
subject: Enzyme Immobilization
  topic: keywords
subject: Fermentation
  topic: keywords
subject: Lignocellulose
  topic: keywords
subject: Pretreatment
  topic: keywords
creator: Anati Abd Rashid Syaida
creator: Mohd Taufiq Mat Jalil
creator: Mohd Fakharul Zaman Raja Yahya
rights: Copyright (c) 2025 Anati Abd Rashid Syaida, Mohd Taufiq Mat Jalil, Mohd Fakharul Zaman Raja Yahya https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
date: 2026-01-02
publication date: 2026-01-02
starting page: 12
ending page: 29
doi: 10.24191/scl.v20i1.9651

Antibacterial Activity of Probiotics Isolated from Commercialized Yogurt Against Pathogenic Bacteria
type: item
description: Probiotics have garnered considerable attention as potential agents for inhibiting pathogenic bacteria due to their beneficial effects on gut health and immune modulation. The study aimed to identify probiotic strains with significant antibacterial potential that could be used as natural alternatives to traditional antibiotics. The antibacterial activity of cell-free supernatant (CFS) and cell lysate (CL) of both LAB isolates against skin and food-borne bacteria was observed via disc diffusion assay where the inhibition zone sizes range from 8.5 ± 0.15 mm to 12.0 ± 0.82 mm in diameter. The standard broth dilution was performed to estimate the MIC and MBC values for both isolates, which exhibited 25-50 g/mL values against Gram-positive bacteria, while against Gram-negative bacteria, the values range between 12.5-100 µg/mL. Only the CL of both isolates exhibited bactericidal effects on the tested bacteria with a ratio ≤ 4. This study's inhibitory effects and results have proven the presence of antibacterial composition in commercial yoghurt as a natural agent that can inhibit the growth of common skin and food-borne pathogenic bacteria. As the issue of antibiotic resistance continues to grow, this study offers promising implications for developing alternative, sustainable antibacterial interventions to safeguard public health.
subject: Articles
  topic: section
creator: Nur Husna Auni Mohamad Zawawi
creator: Nurul Aili Zakaria
creator: Syarifah Ab Rashid
creator: Mohd Fakharul Zaman Raja Yahya
rights: Copyright (c) 2025 Nur Husna Auni Mohamad Zawawi, Nurul Aili Zakaria, Syarifah Ab Rashid, Mohd Fakharul Zaman Raja Yahya https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
date: 2026-01-02
publication date: 2026-01-02
starting page: 129
ending page: 141
doi: 10.24191/scl.v20i1.9647

Microbial Dysbiosis and Immune–Barrier Interactions in Atopic Dermatitis: A Review
type: item
description: Atopic dermatitis (AD) is a multifactorial inflammatory skin disease characterised by immune dysregulation, skin barrier dysfunction, and microbial imbalance, which collectively contribute to a substantial global health burden. Epidemiological evidence shows increasing prevalence worldwide, with pronounced rises in urbanised Asian populations and early childhood. Advances in molecular and multi-omics approaches have transformed skin microbiome research, revealing consistent patterns of reduced microbial diversity and dominance of Staphylococcus aureus, alongside complex interactions with protective commensals such as Staphylococcus epidermidis. These microbial shifts exacerbate type 2 immune responses and barrier disruption, establishing a self-perpetuating cycle of chronic inflammation. Advances in molecular and multi-omics approaches have enhanced understanding of AD heterogeneity, linking genetic factors, skin barrier impairment, and immune–microbiome interactions to disease pathogenesis. This review summarises current insights into the role of the microbiome in AD, emphasising host–microbe interactions, geographic and ethnic differences, and novel therapeutic opportunities targeting microbial modulation. Future progress requires harmonised, multicentre, longitudinal studies that integrate immunological, genetic, microbial, and barrier-related data to unravel AD complexity. Such approaches will enable precision medicine strategies and robust evaluation of novel interventions, addressing a critical need for effective and tailored therapies across diverse populations.
subject: Articles
  topic: section
subject: Atopic dermatitis
  topic: keywords
subject: skin microbiome
  topic: keywords
subject: immune dysregulation
  topic: keywords
subject: skin barrier
  topic: keywords
subject: dysbiosis
  topic: keywords
creator: Nurul Ain Mohd Noor
creator: Nur Najibah Yusra Sulaiman
creator: Siong Meng Lim
creator: Kalavathy Ramasamy
creator: Muhamad Fareez Ismail
rights: Copyright (c) 2025 Nurul Ain Mohd Noor, Nur Najibah Yusra Sulaiman, Siong Meng Lim, Kalavathy Ramasamy, Muhamad Fareez Ismail https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
date: 2026-01-02
publication date: 2026-01-02
starting page: 59
ending page: 74
doi: 10.24191/scl.v20i1.8715

Phytochemical Analysis of Volatile Compounds from Two Varieties of Leucaena Leucocephala (Taramba and Wondergraze) Using Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS) Method
type: item
description: Leucaena leucocephala var. Taramba and Wondergraze, leguminous trees native to Central America, have excellent potential as a fodder crop for livestock. The volatile constituents of L. leucocephala varieties Taramba and Wondergraze from Malaysia have not yet been reported. This information is crucial for understanding the value of this species. In this study, the volatile constituents of the methanolic extract of L. leucocephala (var. Taramba and Wondergraze) fresh leaves were determined, as well as those after being ensiled for 30 days. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) was used to analyse volatile compounds in fresh and ensiled samples, identifying over 20 volatile compounds. The volatile compounds of both Taramba and Wondergraze varieties showed different patterns, such as α-tocopherol and thiophene, while β-amyrin and campesterol were only present in Wondergraze and Taramba, respectively. However, the main constituents, such as n-hexadecanoic acid, 9,12,15-octadecadienoic acid, and β-sitosterol, were similar. In the ensiled samples, we observed the disappearance of some volatile compounds present in the fresh sample and the identification of additional volatile compounds, such as linoelaidic acid and α-tocospiro B. Additionally, these results revealed that some volatile compounds in the Taramba and Wondergraze varieties have been shown to possess various important biological activities.
subject: Articles
  topic: section
subject: Leucaena leucocephala
  topic: keywords
subject: Petai belalang
  topic: keywords
subject: Taramba
  topic: keywords
subject: Wondergraze
  topic: keywords
subject: GC-MS
  topic: keywords
creator: Firstca Aulia Rachma
creator: Agustono Wibowo
creator: Nurain Aziman
creator: Norizan Ahmat
creator: Iswan Budy Suyub
creator: Suhaidi Ariffin
creator: Neni Kartini Che Mohd Ramli
creator: Megat Ahmad Kamal Megat Hanafiah
creator: Mohd Nazrul Hisham Daud
rights: Copyright (c) 2025 Firstca Aulia Rachma, Agustono Wibowo, Nurain Aziman, Norizan Ahmat, Iswan Budy Suyub, Suhaidi Ariffin, Neni Kartini Che Mohd Ramli, Megat Ahmad Kamal Megat Hanafiah, Mohd Nazrul Hisham Daud https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
date: 2026-01-02
publication date: 2026-01-02
starting page: 75
ending page: 82
doi: 10.24191/scl.v20i1.6869

The Detection of five mycotoxins in cocoa bean and its products with QuEChERS Method using Ultra High-Performance Liquid Chromatography Quadrupole-Time-of-Flight Mass Spectrometry.
type: item
description: Cocoa beans are essential for various food and beverage products, necessitating imports due to high demand. A validated analytical method for simultaneously detecting ochratoxin A (OTA) and aflatoxins (B1, B2, G1, and G2) in cocoa was developed using the QuEChERS technique. The analysis was performed via ultra-performance liquid chromatography with quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry in positive MRM mode. Results showed strong linearity (correlation coefficients > 0.999), with detection limits for mycotoxins between 0.11 and 0.99 µg/kg and quantification limits from 0.34 to 2.99 µg/kg. The average recovery rates ranged from 73.4% to 103.5%, with RSDs between 8.2% and 31.5%. This method is sensitive, accurate, and reliable for mycotoxin detection in cocoa products.
subject: Articles
  topic: section
subject: Mycotoxin
  topic: keywords
subject: Cocoa bean
  topic: keywords
subject: QuEChERS
  topic: keywords
subject: UPLC-QTOF-MS
  topic: keywords
creator: Amira Syafiqah Harith
creator: Muhammad Isfaiz Iskandar
creator: Badrul Hisyam Zainudin
creator: Aznie Aida Ahmad
creator: Suzannah Sharif
creator: Zaidah Zainal Ariffin
creator: Muhd Fauzi Safian
rights: Copyright (c) 2026 Amira Syafiqah Harith, Muhammad Isfaiz Iskandar, Badrul Hisyam Zainudin, Aznie Aida Ahmad, Suzannah Sharif, Zaidah Zainal Ariffin, Muhd Fauzi Safian https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
date: 2026-01-02
publication date: 2026-01-02
starting page: 107
ending page: 114
doi: 10.24191/scl.v20i1.5936

Antibiofilm and antibacterial properties of Streptococcus and Staphylococcus from the oral microbiome
type: item
description: The human oral microbiome plays an important role in balancing beneficial and harmful microorganisms in the oral cavity. Certain oral bacteria are known to produce substances that inhibit the formation of microbial biofilm and growth of potentially pathogenic microorganisms. The oral microbiome of the Malaysian population is largely uncharacterized, and there is very little information on its diversity and potential as a source of probiotics or antibiofilm and antibacterial metabolites. The objectives of this study are to characterize the taxonomic composition of the oral microbiome in selected healthy Malaysian subjects; and to assess the capacity of bacterial isolates from oral microbiome to produce antibiofilm and antibacterial compounds. Metagenomic sequencing showed that the oral microbiome includes predominantly bacteria from the phyla Firmicutes, Bacteroidetes, Proteobacteria, Fusobacteria and Actinobacteria while Streptococcus, Haemophilus, Neisseria, Phorphyromonas and Fusobacterium are the most represented genera Altogether, 117 bacterial cultures were successfully isolated from these microbiomes, where 14 (12.0%) isolates inhibited Staphylococcus epidermidis (ATCC 35984) biofilm formation at maturation stage with highest activity observed at 94.8%. Twelve (10.3%) isolates displayed antibacterial activity with the highest activity observed against Streptococcus mutans (ATCC 25175) at 76.9%, followed by Bacillus subtilis (ATCC6633) at 56.6%; but no activities were observed against E. coli (ATCC 25922) or S. aureus (ATCC 25923). Identification via 16S rRNA sequencing showed that the majority of the oral bacterial isolates displaying the antibiofilm and/or antibacterial activities were Streptococcus salivarius followed by strains of S. aureus. Two of these isolates, SA78 and SA10, produced both antibiofilm and antibacterial activities and were identified to be S. salivarus suggesting the potential of this species in treating oral infections and improving dent…
subject: Articles
  topic: section
subject: Antibiofilm activity
  topic: keywords
subject: Antibacterial activity
  topic: keywords
subject: Oral microbiome
  topic: keywords
creator: Nurul Hasanah Dawis
creator: Muhammad Danish Mohd Nazli
creator: Nik Airin Syazlin Azhan Azhan
creator: Mohd Shafiq Aazmi
creator: Aziyah Abd Aziz
creator: Mohammad Faiz Foong Abdullah
rights: Copyright (c) 2025 Nurul Hasanah Dawis, Muhammad Danish Mohd Nazli, Nik Airin Syazlin Azhan Azhan, Mohd Shafiq Aazmi, Aziyah Abd Aziz, Mohammad Faiz Foong Abdullah https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
date: 2025-06-06
publication date: 2025-06-06
starting page: 167
ending page: 184
doi: 10.24191/scl.v19i2.6911

Mass-Spectrometry Phytochemical Profiling of Etlingera coccinea (Blume) S. Sakai & Nagam from Sabah
type: item
description: Etlingera coccinea (Blume) S. Sakai & Nagam is classified in the genus of the Etlingera (Zingiberaceae). Locally known as ‘tuhau’ in Sabah, it is used as traditional remedy such as to cure food poisoning, stomachache as well as condiment in cooking. Previous studies on the genus Etlingera have focused on its phytochemical compounds and biological activities. However, mass-spectrometric profiling of crude extracts has not been reported. In this research, E. coccinea stalks were taken from two different localities: Ranau and Tambunan areas to determine their chemical profiles. Each of locations have three types of crude fractions: n-hexane, chloroform and methanol. The phytochemical screening for both locations show the presence of flavonoids, terpenoids and tannins. Through thorough chemical profiling, the library of Liquid Chromatography Mass-Spectrometry (LC-MS) analysis results showing 10 and 8 known metabolites found in Ranau methanolic, and chloroform extracts respectively. While for Tambunan methanolic and extracts were 8 and 4 known metabolites found. Additionally, Gas Chromatography Mass-Spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis identified of n-hexane extracts from Ranau and Tambunan reported 15 and 9 known metabolites respectively. All identified phytochemical compounds have their own potential application such as antibacterial, anti-fungal, antioxidants, anti-inflammatory, and anti-cancer. The roles could serve as a basis for further exploration of the chemical composition as well as the biological activities of E. coccinea.
subject: Articles
  topic: section
subject: Etlingera coccinea
  topic: keywords
subject: Zingiberaceae
  topic: keywords
subject: LC-MS
  topic: keywords
subject: GC-MS
  topic: keywords
subject: Phytochemical profiling
  topic: keywords
creator: Nurfateen Helmy Abdellah Nazeer
creator: Julenah Ag Nuddin
creator: Fatimah Salim
rights: Copyright (c) 2025 Nurfateen Helmy Abdellah Nazeer, Julenah Ag Nuddin, Fatimah Salim https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
date: 2025-06-06
publication date: 2025-06-06
starting page: 153
ending page: 166
doi: 10.24191/scl.v19i2.6910

Determination of Macronutrients and Trace Elements in Potential Nickel Hyperaccumulators from Ultramafic Areas in Sabah using Atomic Spectroscopic Analysis
type: item
description: Hyperaccumulators species are widely distributed on ultramafic lands where it is capable to accumulate extremely high concentration of metalloids such as Ni, Co and Mn in the above-ground parts without showing any signs of toxicity. However, related information on identified hyperaccumulators from Sabah such as elemental distribution is insufficient due to lack of fundamental studies. The aim of this study is to contemplate hypernickelophores as tropical metal crop candidate for sustainable metal farming and environmental cleanup through evaluation of macronutrients and trace elements such as Na, Ca, K, Ni, Co and Mn in identified hyperaccumulators using Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (AAS). 8 species of previously identified hyperaccumulating plants (Psychotria sarmentosa, Glochidion sp. ‘bambangan’, Rinorea, bengalensis, Rinorea javanica, Actephila alenbakeri, Walsura pinnata, Xylosma luzonensis and Mischocarpus sundaicus were collected from serpentinite area in Kinabalu Park for this study. 4 hypernickelophores which are G. sp. ‘bambangan’, R. bengalensis, R. javanica and P. sarmentosa were found with the accumulation of Ni as much as 10 784 mg/kg, 13 196 mg/kg, 13 780 mg/kg and 17 085 mg/kg, respectively. These findings suggest that these species hold promise for phytoremediation and phytoextraction in Malaysia, particularly in regions with ultramafic soils. Therefore, further study on G. sp. ‘bambangan’ should be carried out as it is an undescribed taxon which is endemic to Sabah. Apart from that, it is crucial to determine the most suitable agronomic practices for the hypernickelophore so the metal bioavailabilty can be increased. Therefore, it can be utilized in the application of metal farming which is a novel mineral extraction technology.
subject: Articles
  topic: section
subject: Hyperaccumulator
  topic: keywords
subject: Hypernickelophore
  topic: keywords
subject: AAS
  topic: keywords
subject: Phytoremediation
  topic: keywords
subject: Metal farming
  topic: keywords
creator: Nur Syafiqah Salim
creator: Julenah Ag Nuddin
creator: Matsain Md Buang
creator: Sukaibin Sumail
creator: Antony van der Ent
creator: Echevvaria Guillaume
rights: Copyright (c) 2025 Nur Syafiqah Salim, Julenah Ag Nuddin, Matsain Md Buang, Sukaibin Sumail, Antony van der Ent, Echevvaria Guillaume https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
date: 2025-06-06
publication date: 2025-06-06
starting page: 136
ending page: 152
doi: 10.24191/scl.v19i2.6909

The Potential of Local Microalgae Isolates in Biotechnological Applications
type: item
description: Microalgae biofilms have emerged as a promising candidate in biotechnology, including enhancing biomass production for various applications and as an efficient alternative to conventional wastewater treatment. This study explores the potential of local microalgae in reducing pollutants in wastewater by sequestering nitrogen and phosphorus while generating biomass that can be used for human food and animal feed. Local microalgal isolates are known to have potential in offering cost-effective, efficient, and sustainable nutrient removal while enabling resource recovery and minimizing ecological risks in wastewater treatment. A total of eight microalgal biofilm samples were successfully isolated and preliminary identified. Three were from the Chlorophyta group, one was Cyanobacteria while the other belonged to the Ochrophyta group. Highest biomass yield was produced by isolate MA12 at a 90.0% increase in wet weight mg/L, followed by 76.9% and 70.0% by MA22 and MA19, respectively. When grown in synthetic wastewater for seven days, the highest reduction in TN was observed in MA18 at 43.5% while MA7 showed a remarkable performance of 95.0% of reduction of TP. Integrating microalgae biofilms into wastewater treatment systems can thus enhance pollutant removal and contribute to the circular economy by converting waste into valuable bioproducts. This study highlights the novelty of using local microalgae isolates both in environmental protection and resource recovery, paving the way for their implementation in sustainable wastewater management practices.
subject: Articles
  topic: section
subject: Microalgae
  topic: keywords
subject: Biomass
  topic: keywords
subject: Wastewater
  topic: keywords
subject: Pollutants removal
  topic: keywords
subject: Biotechnological applications
  topic: keywords
creator: Nik Airin Syazlin Azhan
creator: Mohammad Faiz Foong Abdullah
creator: Umi Marshida Abd Hamid
creator: Norashirene Mohamad Jamil
creator: Aziyah Abdul-Aziz
rights: Copyright (c) 2025 Nik Airin Syazlin Azhan, Mohammad Faiz Foong Abdullah, Umi Marshida Abd Hamid, Norashirene Mohamad Jamil, Aziyah Abdul-Aziz https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
date: 2025-06-06
publication date: 2025-06-06
starting page: 121
ending page: 135
doi: 10.24191/scl.v19i2.6908

Unmasking Microplastic Pollution: A Study on the Distribution and Impact of Microplastics in Yuehai Lake, China
type: item
description: The increasing use of plastics has led to a significant environmental challenge: microplastic (MP) pollution, which poses threats to aquatic ecosystems and human well-being. Freshwater habitats, including lakes, are particularly vulnerable to such contamination. This study investigates the characteristics and distribution of microplastics (MPs) in Yuehai Lake, China. Water samples were collected from five locations and analyzed using laser direct infrared (LDIR) spectroscopy to assess MP presence and concentration. MPs were detected at all sampling sites. The highest concentration, exceeding 1400 particles/L, was recorded at S5 (Lijing Street), while S1 (Yuehai Fishing Base), a site primarily used for fishing activities, recorded a concentration of 1100 particles/L. MP fragments were the predominant form (63.36%), followed by fibers (33.22%) and films (3.42%). Seventeen polymer types were identified, with fluororubber (FKM) being the most common (22.80%), followed by fluorosilicone rubber (FVMQ, 16.90%), chlorinated polyethylene (CPE, 13.58%), and polyvinyl chloride (PVC, 10.10%). The composition and morphology of MPs suggest automobile tire contamination as a primary source. Over 90% of the MPs detected were small-sized particles (20–100 μm). The Pollution Load Index (PLI) confirmed MP contamination at all sites. These findings provide essential insights to support governmental initiatives in environmental protection, policy development, and public awareness, contributing to improved ecological health and sustainability.
subject: Articles
  topic: section
subject: Microplastics
  topic: keywords
subject: Water
  topic: keywords
subject: Yuehai Lake
  topic: keywords
subject: Pollution load index
  topic: keywords
subject: Laser Direct Infrared Imaging
  topic: keywords
creator: Jia Ren
creator: YiChao Li
creator: Yuwen Wang
creator: Huifang Yang
creator: Faeiza Buyong
rights: Copyright (c) 2025 Jia Ren, YiChao Li, Yuwen Wang, Huifang Yang, Faeiza Buyong https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0
date: 2025-06-06
publication date: 2025-06-06
starting page: 104
ending page: 120
doi: 10.24191/scl.v19i2.6907