Solvent selection for efficient phenolic extraction from palm kernel cake using microwave-assisted techniques

Authors

  • Ellisa Natasya Rosli Chemical Engineering Studies, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Cawangan Pulau Pinang, Permatang Pauh Campus, 13500 Pulau Pinang, MALAYSIA
  • Norhusna Mohamad Nor Chemical Engineering Studies, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Cawangan Pulau Pinang, Permatang Pauh Campus, 13500 Pulau Pinang, MALAYSIA
  • Siti Hawa Mat Yaman Chemical Engineering Studies, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Cawangan Pulau Pinang, Permatang Pauh Campus, 13500 Pulau Pinang, MALAYSIA

DOI:

https://doi.org/10.24191/mjcet.v8i1.4580

Keywords:

Solvent Polarity, Microwave-Assisted Extraction, Phenolic Compound, Palm Kernel Cake, Extraction Yield, Total Phenolic Content

Abstract

This study investigated the recovery of phenolic compounds from palm kernel cake (PKC) using microwave-assisted extraction (MAE),
focusing on the effects of solvent type and liquid-to-solid ratio on extraction efficiency. MAE was performed under constant microwave
power (300 W) and extraction time (25 minutes), while varying the solvent types (ethanol, methanol, and water) and liquid-to-solid ratios (20:1, 30:1, and 40:1). Among the solvents tested, ethanol achieved the highest extraction yield (45%) and total phenolic content (TPC) of 0.086 mg GAE/g dry oil, while water produced the lowest yield (10%) and TPC (0.052 mg GAE/g dry oil). Regarding the liquid-to-solid ratio, the highest extraction yield (48%) was observed at a 40:1 ratio. However, the highest TPC was obtained at a 30:1 ratio, emphasising the dilution effect at higher solvent volumes. These findings demonstrate that optimising both solvent selection and liquid-to-solid ratio is critical for maximising phenolic recovery from PKC. Moreover, the use of ethanol, a food-grade and biodegradable solvent, coupled with MAE technology, provides a sustainable and cost-effective approach for the valorisation of agricultural by-products. The optimised process offers potential applications in the food, nutraceutical, and pharmaceutical
industries.

Author Biographies

Norhusna Mohamad Nor, Chemical Engineering Studies, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Cawangan Pulau Pinang, Permatang Pauh Campus, 13500 Pulau Pinang, MALAYSIA

A senior lecturer in Chemical Engineering at Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM), Pulau Pinang. Her expertise in air pollution control, Separation technology, Biomass conversion, Wastewater treatment, Nanotechnology, and Materials Science. 

Siti Hawa Mat Yaman, Chemical Engineering Studies, Universiti Teknologi MARA, Cawangan Pulau Pinang, Permatang Pauh Campus, 13500 Pulau Pinang, MALAYSIA

A master's degree student in Chemical Engineering at Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM), Pulau Pinang.

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Published

2025-05-07

How to Cite

Rosli, E. N., Mohamad Nor, N., & Mat Yaman, S. H. (2025). Solvent selection for efficient phenolic extraction from palm kernel cake using microwave-assisted techniques . Malaysian Journal of Chemical Engineering and Technology, 8(1), 15–25. https://doi.org/10.24191/mjcet.v8i1.4580