BEYOND CONVENTIONAL MENTAL SKILLS TRAINING IN SPORTS: A CRITICAL REVIEW OF CURRENT PARADIGMS
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.24191/mjssr.v22i1.8233Keywords:
goal setting, visualization and imagery, self-talk, concentration and focus, arousal regulationAbstract
Mental skills training (MST) has emerged as a critical component in optimizing sports performance, complementing physical training. This review challenges conventional perspectives by providing a critical re-evaluation of MST, delving into core mental skills, their theoretical underpinnings, and exploring new frameworks that reshape the field. Key mental strategies such as goal setting, visualization, self-talk, concentration, and arousal regulation are critically reviewed, with particular emphasis on their practical application in diverse sports contexts. A comprehensive literature search from inception to July 2024 was conducted using the databases Web of Science, Scopus, and PsycINFO, and twenty-one (N=21) peer-reviewed studies met the inclusion criteria. This review questions traditional approaches to MST, proposing it as not just a supplementary tool but a transformative force in athletic development. It argues for a more adaptive and integrative approach to MST, accounting for individual and contextual variability in sports performance. Through a critical analysis of both established practices and emerging trends, this review aims to challenge current thinking, inspire innovative MST strategies, and introduce novel insights that can holistically empower athletes to meet the increasingly complex psychological demands of competitive sports.
References
Abdollahipour, R., Wulf, G., Psotta, R., & Palomo Nieto, M. (2015). Performance of gymnastics skill benefits from an external focus of attention. Journal of Sports Sciences, 33(17), 1807–1813. https://doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2015.1012102
Anderson, B. E., & Bliven, K. C. H. (2017). The Use of Breathing Exercises in the Treatment of Chronic, Nonspecific Low Back Pain. Journal of Sport Rehabilitation, 26(5), 452–458. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsr.2015-0199
Ashford, M., Abraham, A., & Poolton, J. (2021). Understanding a Player’s Decision-Making Process in Team Sports: A Systematic Review of Empirical Evidence. Sports, 9(5), 65. https://doi.org/10.3390/sports9050065
Baltzell, A., Caraballo, N., Chipman, K., & Hayden, L. (2014). A Qualitative Study of the Mindfulness Meditation Training for Sport: Division I Female Soccer Players’ Experience. Journal of Clinical Sport Psychology, 8(3), 221–244. https://doi.org/10.1123/jcsp.2014-0030
Battaglini, M. P., Pessôa Filho, D. M., Calais, S. L., Miyazaki, M. C. O. S., Neiva, C. M., Espada, M. C., De Moraes, M. G., & Verardi, C. E. L. (2022). Analysis of Progressive Muscle Relaxation on Psychophysiological Variables in Basketball Athletes. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(24), 17065. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph192417065
Bernardi, N. F., De Buglio, M., Trimarchi, P. D., Chielli, A., & Bricolo, E. (2013). Mental practice promotes motor anticipation: Evidence from skilled music performance. Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 7. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2013.00451
Billy Yachsie, B. T. P. W., Suharjana, S., Graha, A. S., Prasetyo, Y., Nasrulloh, A., & Suhasto, S. (2023). Mental Training to Improve the 40-Meter-Distance Archery Accuracy with Imagery and Meditation Methods. International Journal of Human Movement and Sports Sciences, 11(2), 450–456. https://doi.org/10.13189/saj.2023.110223
Birrer, D., & Morgan, G. (2010). Psychological skills training as a way to enhance an athlete’s performance in high‐intensity sports. Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports, 20(s2), 78–87. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0838.2010.01188.x
Birrer, D., Röthlin, P., & Morgan, G. (2012). Mindfulness to Enhance Athletic Performance: Theoretical Considerations and Possible Impact Mechanisms. Mindfulness, 3(3), 235–246. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-012-0109-2
Blanco-Ariza, J., Reigal-Garrido, R. E., Domínguez-González, J. A., Morales-Sánchez, V., & Hernández-Mendo, A. (2024). Effects of Mental Visualization on Plyometric Performance and Self-Confidence of Football Players. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 00315125241272724. https://doi.org/10.1177/00315125241272724
Brooks, R., Brooks, S., & Goldstein, S. (2012). The Power of Mindsets: Nurturing Engagement, Motivation, and Resilience in Students. In S. L. Christenson, A. L. Reschly, & C. Wylie (Eds.), Handbook of Research on Student Engagement (pp. 541–562). Springer US. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-2018-7_26
Bühlmayer, L., Birrer, D., Röthlin, P., Faude, O., & Donath, L. (2017). Effects of Mindfulness Practice on Performance-Relevant Parameters and Performance Outcomes in Sports: A Meta-Analytical Review. Sports Medicine, 47(11), 2309–2321. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-017-0752-9
Chen, C.-C., Chen, Y., Tang, L.-C., & Chieng, W.-H. (2022). Effects of Interactive Music Tempo with Heart Rate Feedback on Physio-Psychological Responses of Basketball Players. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 19(8), 4810. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19084810
Cooper, R. P., Ruh, N., & Mareschal, D. (2014). The Goal Circuit Model: A Hierarchical Multi‐Route Model of the Acquisition and Control of Routine Sequential Action in Humans. Cognitive Science, 38(2), 244–274. https://doi.org/10.1111/cogs.12067
Dana, A., & Gozalzadeh, E. (2017). Internal and External Imagery Effects on Tennis Skills Among Novices. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 124(5), 1022–1043. https://doi.org/10.1177/0031512517719611
Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (2012). Self-Determination Theory. In P. Van Lange, A. Kruglanski, & E. Higgins, Handbook of Theories of Social Psychology: Volume 1 (pp. 416–437). SAGE Publications Ltd. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781446249215.n21
Di Corrado, D., Guarnera, M., Guerrera, C. S., Maldonato, N. M., Di Nuovo, S., Castellano, S., & Coco, M. (2020). Mental Imagery Skills in Competitive Young Athletes and Non-athletes. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 633. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00633
Di Corrado, D., Guarnera, M., Vitali, F., Quartiroli, A., & Coco, M. (2019). Imagery ability of elite level athletes from individual vs. Team and contact vs. No-contact sports. PeerJ, 7, e6940. https://doi.org/10.7717/peerj.6940
Diekfuss, J. A., Rhea, C. K., Schmitz, R. J., Grooms, D. R., Wilkins, R. W., Slutsky, A. B., & Raisbeck, L. D. (2019). The Influence of Attentional Focus on Balance Control over Seven Days of Training. Journal of Motor Behavior, 51(3), 281–292. https://doi.org/10.1080/00222895.2018.1468312
Durand-Bush, N., Baker, J., Van Den Berg, F., Richard, V., & Bloom, G. A. (2023). The Gold Medal Profile for Sport Psychology (GMP-SP). Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 35(4), 547–570. https://doi.org/10.1080/10413200.2022.2055224
Egeland, J., Lund, O., Kowalik-Gran, I., Aarlien, A. K., & Söderlund, G. B. W. (2023). Effects of auditory white noise stimulation on sustained attention and response time variability. Frontiers in Psychology, 14, 1301771. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2023.1301771
Fischer, J., Mikhael, J. G., Tenenbaum, J. B., & Kanwisher, N. (2016). Functional neuroanatomy of intuitive physical inference. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 113(34). https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1610344113
Forgas, J. P., Baumeister, R. F., & Tice, D. M. (Eds.). (2011). Psychology of Self-Regulation (0 ed.). Psychology Press. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203837962
Forsblom, K., Konttinen, N., Weinberg, R., Matilainen, P., & Lintunen, T. (2019). Perceived goal setting practices across a competitive season. International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching, 14(6), 765–778. https://doi.org/10.1177/1747954119880994
Gao, Q., & Zhang, L. (2023). Brief mindfulness meditation intervention improves attentional control of athletes in virtual reality shooting competition: Evidence from fNIRS and eye tracking. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 69, 102477. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2023.102477
Gardner, A. K., Kosemund, M., Hogg, D., Heymann, A., & Martinez, J. (2017). Setting goals, not just roles: Improving teamwork through goal-focused debriefing. The American Journal of Surgery, 213(2), 249–252. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amjsurg.2016.09.040
Gaudreau, P., & Braaten, A. (2016). Achievement Goals and their Underlying Goal Motivation: Does it Matter Why Sport Participants Pursue their Goals? Psychologica Belgica, 56(3), 244–268. https://doi.org/10.5334/pb.266
Gavelin, H. M., Neely, A. S., Dunås, T., Eskilsson, T., Järvholm, L. S., & Boraxbekk, C.-J. (2020). Mental fatigue in stress-related exhaustion disorder: Structural brain correlates, clinical characteristics and relations with cognitive functioning. NeuroImage: Clinical, 27, 102337. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nicl.2020.102337
Gholamrezaei, A., Van Diest, I., Aziz, Q., Vlaeyen, J. W. S., & Van Oudenhove, L. (2021). Psychophysiological responses to various slow, deep breathing techniques. Psychophysiology, 58(2), e13712. https://doi.org/10.1111/psyp.13712
Giusti, N. E., Carder, S. L., Vopat, L., Baker, J., Tarakemeh, A., Vopat, B., & Mulcahey, M. K. (2020). Comparing Burnout in Sport-Specializing Versus Sport-Sampling Adolescent Athletes: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. Orthopaedic Journal of Sports Medicine, 8(3), 232596712090757. https://doi.org/10.1177/2325967120907579
Göçmen, R., Aktop, A., Pınar, Y., Toktaş, N., & Kristýna Jandačková, V. (2023). The Effect of Heart Rate Variability Biofeedback on Basketball Performance Tests. Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback, 48(4), 461–470. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10484-023-09600-7
Gozli, D. G., & Dolcini, N. (2018). Reaching Into the Unknown: Actions, Goal Hierarchies, and Explorative Agency. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 266. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.00266
Gross, M., Moore, Z. E., Gardner, F. L., Wolanin, A. T., Pess, R., & Marks, D. R. (2018). An empirical examination comparing the Mindfulness-Acceptance-Commitment approach and Psychological Skills Training for the mental health and sport performance of female student athletes. International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 16(4), 431–451. https://doi.org/10.1080/1612197X.2016.1250802
Healy, L., Tincknell-Smith, A., & Ntoumanis, N. (2018a). Goal Setting in Sport and Performance. In L. Healy, A. Tincknell-Smith, & N. Ntoumanis, Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Psychology. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190236557.013.152
Healy, L., Tincknell-Smith, A., & Ntoumanis, N. (2018b). Goal Setting in Sport and Performance. In L. Healy, A. Tincknell-Smith, & N. Ntoumanis, Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Psychology. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190236557.013.152
Hodges, N. J., & Williams, A. M. (Eds.). (2019). Skill Acquisition in Sport: Research, Theory and Practice (3rd ed.). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781351189750
Holt, N. L., Neely, K. C., Slater, L. G., Camiré, M., Côté, J., Fraser-Thomas, J., MacDonald, D., Strachan, L., & Tamminen, K. A. (2017). A grounded theory of positive youth development through sport based on results from a qualitative meta-study. International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 10(1), 1–49. https://doi.org/10.1080/1750984X.2016.1180704
Hoyle, B., Taylor, J., Zugic, L., & Filho, E. (2020). Coordination Cost and Super-Efficiency in Teamwork: The Role of Communication, Psychological States, Cardiovascular Responses, and Brain Rhythms. Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback, 45(4), 323–341. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10484-020-09479-8
Hrozanova, M., Moen, F., & Pallesen, S. (2019). Unique Predictors of Sleep Quality in Junior Athletes: The Protective Function of Mental Resilience, and the Detrimental Impact of Sex, Worry and Perceived Stress. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 1256. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01256
Hussey, J., Weinberg, R., & Assar, A. (2020). Mindfulness in Sport: An Intervention for a Choking-Susceptible Athlete. Case Studies in Sport and Exercise Psychology, 4(1), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1123/cssep.2019-0025
Ignacio, J., Scherpbier, A., Dolmans, D., Rethans, J.-J., & Liaw, S. Y. (2017). Mental Rehearsal Strategy for Stress Management and Performance in Simulations. Clinical Simulation in Nursing, 13(7), 295–302. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecns.2017.04.005
Jackman, P. C., Whitehead, A. E., Swann, C., & Brick, N. E. (2024). Self-regulatory processes in goal striving during excellent distance-running performances: A qualitative study. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 70, 102516. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2023.102516
Jermaina, N., Kusmaedi, N., Mamun, A., Gaffar, V., Purnomo, E., & Marheni, E. (2022). Effects of Relaxation Exercises to Reduce Anxiety in Beginner Athletes. International Journal of Human Movement and Sports Sciences, 10(6), 1275–1283. https://doi.org/10.13189/saj.2022.100618
Kegelaers, J., Wylleman, P., Bunigh, A., & Oudejans, R. R. D. (2021). A Mixed Methods Evaluation of a Pressure Training Intervention to Develop Resilience in Female Basketball Players. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 33(2), 151–172. https://doi.org/10.1080/10413200.2019.1630864
Kim, J., Kwon, J. H., Kim, J., Kim, E. J., Kim, H. E., Kyeong, S., & Kim, J.-J. (2021). The effects of positive or negative self-talk on the alteration of brain functional connectivity by performing cognitive tasks. Scientific Reports, 11(1), 14873. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-94328-9
Krivyca, I., Nesen, O., Strelnykova, Y., & Wnorowski, K. (2023). Development of volleyball skills in physical education lessons using visual imagery in 10-11-year-old schoolchildren. Physical Culture, Recreation and Rehabilitation, 2(1), 24–29. https://doi.org/10.15561/physcult.2023.0104
Lange-Smith, S., Cabot, J., Coffee, P., Gunnell, K., & Tod, D. (2023). The efficacy of psychological skills training for enhancing performance in sport: A review of reviews. International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 22(4), 1012–1029. https://doi.org/10.1080/1612197X.2023.2168725
Latinjak, A. T., Masó, M., Calmeiro, L., & Hatzigeorgiadis, A. (2020). Athletes’ use of goal-directed self-talk: Situational determinants and functions. International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 18(6), 733–748. https://doi.org/10.1080/1612197X.2019.1611899
Latinjak, A. T., Zourbanos, N., López-Ros, V., & Hatzigeorgiadis, A. (2014). Goal-directed and undirected self-talk: Exploring a new perspective for the study of athletes’ self-talk. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 15(5), 548–558. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2014.05.007
Levy, J. J., & Baldwin, D. R. (2019). Psychophysiology and biofeedback of sport performance. In M. H. Anshel, T. A. Petrie, & J. A. Steinfeldt (Eds.), APA handbook of sport and exercise psychology, volume 1: Sport psychology (Vol. 1). (pp. 745–758). American Psychological Association. https://doi.org/10.1037/0000123-037
Liang, D., Chen, S., Zhang, W., Xu, K., Li, Y., Li, D., Cheng, H., Xiao, J., Wan, L., & Liu, C. (2021). Investigation of a Progressive Relaxation Training Intervention on Precompetition Anxiety and Sports Performance Among Collegiate Student Athletes. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 617541. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.617541
Lin, H.-H., Lin, T.-Y., Ling, Y., & Lo, C.-C. (2021). Influence of Imagery Training on Adjusting the Pressure of Fin Swimmers, Improving Sports Performance and Stabilizing Psychological Quality. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(22), 11767. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph182211767
Lindsay, R. S., Larkin, P., Kittel, A., & Spittle, M. (2023). Mental imagery training programs for developing sport-specific motor skills: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Physical Education and Sport Pedagogy, 28(4), 444–465. https://doi.org/10.1080/17408989.2021.1991297
Liștea, R., Ducrocq, E., Affective and Cognitive Control Lab, Department of Psychological Sciences, University of London, Birkbeck, UK, Siminiceanu, A., Developmental Psychology Lab, Department of Psychology, Babeș-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania, laurapetra@psychology.ro, Developmental Psychology Lab, Department of Psychology, Babeș-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania, Visu-Petra, L., & Developmental Psychology Lab, Department of Psychology, Babeș-Bolyai University, Cluj-Napoca, Romania. (2017). Getting the butterflies to fly in formation: A review on the modulating effect of attentional control on motor and visual aspects of sports performance under pressure. Cognition, Brain, Behavior. An Interdisciplinary Journal, 21(4), 249–274. https://doi.org/10.24193/cbb.2017.21.16
Makepeace, T., Young, B. W., & Rathwell, S. (2021). Masters Athletes’ Views on Sport Psychology for Performance Enhancement and Sport Lifestyle Adherence. The Sport Psychologist, 35(3), 200–212. https://doi.org/10.1123/tsp.2020-0110
Mesagno, C., & Mullane-Grant, T. (2010). A Comparison of Different Pre-Performance Routines as Possible Choking Interventions. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 22(3), 343–360. https://doi.org/10.1080/10413200.2010.491780
Migliaccio, G. M., Russo, L., Maric, M., & Padulo, J. (2023). Sports Performance and Breathing Rate: What Is the Connection? A Narrative Review on Breathing Strategies. Sports, 11(5), 103. https://doi.org/10.3390/sports11050103
Miller, L. E., & Weiss, R. M. (2015). Setting Goals in Different Roles: Applying Key Results From the Goal-Setting Literature. Organization Management Journal, 12(1), 14–22. https://doi.org/10.1080/15416518.2014.969367
Mizuguchi, N., Nakata, H., Uchida, Y., & Kanosue, K. (2012). Motor imagery and sport performance. The Journal of Physical Fitness and Sports Medicine, 1(1), 103–111. https://doi.org/10.7600/jpfsm.1.103
Mulder, Th. (2007). Motor imagery and action observation: Cognitive tools for rehabilitation. Journal of Neural Transmission, 114(10), 1265–1278. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00702-007-0763-z
Mulvenna, M., Adie, J. W., Sage, L. D., Wilson, N. E., & Howat, D. (2020). Approach-achievement goals and motivational context on psycho-physiological functioning and performance among novice basketball players. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 51, 101714. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2020.101714
Natsuhara, T., Kato, T., Nakayama, M., Yoshida, T., Sasaki, R., Matsutake, T., & Asai, T. (2020). Decision-Making While Passing and Visual Search Strategy During Ball Receiving in Team Sport Play. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 127(2), 468–489. https://doi.org/10.1177/0031512519900057
Nguyen, J., & Brymer, E. (2018). Nature-Based Guided Imagery as an Intervention for State Anxiety. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 1858. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01858
Nien, J.-T., Wu, C.-H., Yang, K.-T., Cho, Y.-M., Chu, C.-H., Chang, Y.-K., & Zhou, C. (2020). Mindfulness Training Enhances Endurance Performance and Executive Functions in Athletes: An Event-Related Potential Study. Neural Plasticity, 2020, 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1155/2020/8213710
Noetel, M., Ciarrochi, J., Van Zanden, B., & Lonsdale, C. (2019). Mindfulness and acceptance approaches to sporting performance enhancement: A systematic review. International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 12(1), 139–175. https://doi.org/10.1080/1750984X.2017.1387803
Oblinger-Peters, V., & Krenn, B. (2020). “Time for Recovery” or “Utter Uncertainty”? The Postponement of the Tokyo 2020 Olympic Games Through the Eyes of Olympic Athletes and Coaches. A Qualitative Study. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 610856. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.610856
Olanescu, M., Suciu, A., Peris, M., & Ianosi, A. (2021). Smart assessment methodology in physical education classes. 2021 9th International Conference on Modern Power Systems (MPS), 1–4. https://doi.org/10.1109/MPS52805.2021.9492587
Osborne, M. S. (2016). Art in motion III: Performing under pressure. Peter Lang.
Pagani, E., Gavazzoni, N., Bernardelli, G., Malacarne, M., Solaro, N., Giusti, E., Castelnuovo, G., Volpi, P., Carimati, G., & Lucini, D. (2023). Psychological Intervention Based on Mental Relaxation to Manage Stress in Female Junior Elite Soccer Team: Improvement in Cardiac Autonomic Control, Perception of Stress and Overall Health. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 20(2), 942. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph20020942
Parnabas, V. A., Mahamood, Y., Parnabas, J., & Abdullah, N. M. (2014). The Relationship between Relaxation Techniques and Sport Performance. Universal Journal of Psychology, 2(3), 108–112. https://doi.org/10.13189/ujp.2014.020302
Paul, M., & Garg, K. (2012). The Effect of Heart Rate Variability Biofeedback on Performance Psychology of Basketball Players. Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback, 37(2), 131–144. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10484-012-9185-2
Perkins, D., Wilson, G. V., & Kerr, J. H. (2001). The Effects of Elevated Arousal and Mood on Maximal Strength Performance in Athletes. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 13(3), 239–259. https://doi.org/10.1080/104132001753144392
Piasecki, P. A., Loughead, T. M., Paradis, K. F., & Munroe-Chandler, K. J. (2021). Using a Personal-Disclosure Mutual-Sharing Approach to Deliver a Team-Based Mindfulness Meditation Program to Enhance Cohesion. The Sport Psychologist, 35(1), 22–29. https://doi.org/10.1123/tsp.2019-0116
Pronczuk, M., Trybek, G., Terbalyan, A., Markowski, J., Pilch, J., Krzysztofik, M., Kostrzewa, M., Mostowik, A., & Maszczyk, A. (2023). The Effects of EEG Biofeedback Training on Visual Reaction Time in Judo Athletes. Journal of Human Kinetics, 89, 247–258. https://doi.org/10.5114/jhk/174272
Pusenjak, N., Grad, A., Tusak, M., Leskovsek, M., & Schwarzlin, R. (2015). Can biofeedback training of psychophysiological responses enhance athletes’ sport performance? A practitioner’s perspective. The Physician and Sportsmedicine, 43(3), 287–299. https://doi.org/10.1080/00913847.2015.1069169
Putro, S., Muntasa, A., Mardika, N., Rachmad, A., Khozaimi, A., Suzanti, I., & Pramudita, Y. (2018). The Decision Support System of Player Placement in Single, Double and Mix Double Sector on Sport Badmintons Using SMART Method. Proceedings of the The 1st International Conference on Computer Science and Engineering Technology Universitas Muria Kudus. The 1st International Conference on Computer Science and Engineering Technology Universitas Muria Kudus, Kudus, Indonesia. https://doi.org/10.4108/eai.24-10-2018.2280559
Ranganathan, V. K., Siemionow, V., Liu, J. Z., Sahgal, V., & Yue, G. H. (2004). From mental power to muscle power—Gaining strength by using the mind. Neuropsychologia, 42(7), 944–956. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2003.11.018
Renaghan, E., Wishon, M. J., Wittels, H. L., Feigenbaum, L. A., Bellamy, K., Hatfield, M., Girardi, J., Lee, S., McDonald, S. M., & Wittels, S. H. (2023). The effects of relaxation techniques following acute, high intensity football training on parasympathetic reactivation. Frontiers in Sports and Active Living, 5, 1267631. https://doi.org/10.3389/fspor.2023.1267631
Ridderinkhof, K. R., & Brass, M. (2015). How Kinesthetic Motor Imagery works: A predictive-processing theory of visualization in sports and motor expertise. Journal of Physiology-Paris, 109(1–3), 53–63. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jphysparis.2015.02.003
Rooks, J. D., Morrison, A. B., Goolsarran, M., Rogers, S. L., & Jha, A. P. (2017). “We Are Talking About Practice”: The Influence of Mindfulness vs. Relaxation Training on Athletes’ Attention and Well-Being over High-Demand Intervals. Journal of Cognitive Enhancement, 1(2), 141–153. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41465-017-0016-5
Röthlin, P., Horvath, S., Trösch, S., Holtforth, M. G., & Birrer, D. (2020). Differential and shared effects of psychological skills training and mindfulness training on performance-relevant psychological factors in sport: A randomized controlled trial. BMC Psychology, 8(1), 80. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40359-020-00449-7
Rupprecht, A. G. O., Tran, U. S., & Gröpel, P. (2024). The effectiveness of pre-performance routines in sports: A meta-analysis. International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 17(1), 39–64. https://doi.org/10.1080/1750984X.2021.1944271
Saemi, E., Amo-Aghaei, E., Moteshareie, E., & Yamada, M. (2023). An external focusing strategy was beneficial in experienced children but not in novices: The effect of external focus, internal focus, and holistic attention strategies. International Journal of Sports Science & Coaching, 18(4), 1067–1073. https://doi.org/10.1177/17479541221104158
Sammy, N., Anstiss, P. A., Moore, L. J., Freeman, P., Wilson, M. R., & Vine, S. J. (2017). The effects of arousal reappraisal on stress responses, performance and attention. Anxiety, Stress, & Coping, 30(6), 619–629. https://doi.org/10.1080/10615806.2017.1330952
Sampogna, G., Borgi, M., Collacchi, B., Cirulli, F., Cerino, S., Rullo, S., Di Vincenzo, M., Luciano, M., Di Tommaso, V., Moliterni, S., Bichi, A., Garside, J., Kivistö, S., Iarion, A., & Fiorillo, A. (2022). Using sport-based interventions for people with severe mental disorders: Results from the European EASMH study. International Review of Psychiatry, 34(7–8), 837–847. https://doi.org/10.1080/09540261.2022.2106122
Santos-Rosa, F. J., Montero-Carretero, C., Gómez-Landero, L. A., Torregrossa, M., & Cervelló, E. (2022a). Positive and negative spontaneous self-talk and performance in gymnastics: The role of contextual, personal and situational factors. PLOS ONE, 17(3), e0265809. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0265809
Santos-Rosa, F. J., Montero-Carretero, C., Gómez-Landero, L. A., Torregrossa, M., & Cervelló, E. (2022b). Positive and negative spontaneous self-talk and performance in gymnastics: The role of contextual, personal and situational factors. PLOS ONE, 17(3), e0265809. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0265809
Shapiro, S., Siegel, R., & Neff, K. D. (2018). Paradoxes of Mindfulness. Mindfulness, 9(6), 1693–1701. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-018-0957-5
Shokri, A., & Nosratabadi, M. (2021). Comparison of Biofeedback and Combined Interventions on Athlete’s Performance. Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback, 46(3), 227–234. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10484-020-09498-5
Smith, A. L., Ntoumanis, N., Duda, J. L., & Vansteenkiste, M. (2011). Goal Striving, Coping, and Well-Being: A Prospective Investigation of the Self-Concordance Model in Sport. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 33(1), 124–145. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsep.33.1.124
Soumendra Saha, Dr. Pritha Mukhopadhyay, Dr. P.K. Chattopadhyay, D Biswas, & Dr. Srilekha Saha. (2005). Arousal Modulation as predictor of achievement motivation in high soccer performers. Unpublished. https://doi.org/10.13140/2.1.4823.8408
Stephen, F. A., Ermalyn, L. P., Yasmin, M., B., Louise, L. J. D., & Juvenmile, T. B. (2022). A Voyage into the Visualization of Athletic Performances: A Review. American Journal of Multidisciplinary Research and Innovation, 1(3), 105–109. https://doi.org/10.54536/ajmri.v1i3.479
Stoeber, J., Uphill, M. A., & Hotham, S. (2009). Predicting Race Performance in Triathlon: The Role of Perfectionism, Achievement Goals, and Personal Goal Setting. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 31(2), 211–245. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsep.31.2.211
Swann, C., Hooper, A., Schweickle, M. J., Peoples, G., Mullan, J., Hutto, D., Allen, M. S., & Vella, S. A. (2020). Comparing the effects of goal types in a walking session with healthy adults: Preliminary evidence for open goals in physical activity. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 47, 101475. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2019.01.003
Swettenham, L., Eubank, M., Won, D., & Whitehead, A. E. (2020). Investigating stress and coping during practice and competition in tennis using think aloud. International Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 18(2), 218–238. https://doi.org/10.1080/1612197X.2018.1511622
Tedesqui, R. A. B., & Glynn, B. A. (2013). “Focus on What?”: Applying Research Findings on Attentional Focus for Elite-Level Soccer Coaching. Journal of Sport Psychology in Action, 4(2), 122–132. https://doi.org/10.1080/21520704.2013.785453
Tod, D., Hardy, J., & Oliver, E. (2011). Effects of Self-Talk: A Systematic Review. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 33(5), 666–687. https://doi.org/10.1123/jsep.33.5.666
Tod, D., Hodge, K., & Krane, V. (2023). Routledge Handbook of Applied Sport Psychology: A Comprehensive Guide for Students and Practitioners (2nd ed.). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003173588
Toussaint, L., Nguyen, Q. A., Roettger, C., Dixon, K., Offenbächer, M., Kohls, N., Hirsch, J., & Sirois, F. (2021). Effectiveness of Progressive Muscle Relaxation, Deep Breathing, and Guided Imagery in Promoting Psychological and Physiological States of Relaxation. Evidence-Based Complementary and Alternative Medicine, 2021, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/5924040
Tovares, A. V. (2010). Managing the Voices: Athlete Self-Talk as a Dialogic Process. Journal of Language and Social Psychology, 29(3), 261–277. https://doi.org/10.1177/0261927X10368829
Trabelsi, O., Gharbi, A., Souissi, M. A., Mezghanni, N., Bouchiba, M., & Mrayeh, M. (2022). Video modeling examples are effective tools for self-regulated learning in physical education: Students learn through repeated viewing, self-talk, and mental rehearsal. European Physical Education Review, 28(2), 341–360. https://doi.org/10.1177/1356336X211046300
Trautwein, F.-M., Kanske, P., Böckler, A., & Singer, T. (2020). Differential benefits of mental training types for attention, compassion, and theory of mind. Cognition, 194, 104039. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2019.104039
Travassos, B., Davids, K., Araújo, D., & Esteves, T. P. (2013). Performance analysis in team sports: Advances from an Ecological Dynamics approach. International Journal of Performance Analysis in Sport, 13(1), 83–95. https://doi.org/10.1080/24748668.2013.11868633
Tsitsi, T., Charalambous, A., Papastavrou, E., & Raftopoulos, V. (2017). Effectiveness of a relaxation intervention (progressive muscle relaxation and guided imagery techniques) to reduce anxiety and improve mood of parents of hospitalized children with malignancies: A randomized controlled trial in Republic of Cyprus and Greece. European Journal of Oncology Nursing, 26, 9–18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejon.2016.10.007
Turner, M., & Jones, M. (2018). Arousal Control in Sport. In M. Turner & M. Jones, Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Psychology. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190236557.013.155
Van Cutsem, J., Marcora, S., De Pauw, K., Bailey, S., Meeusen, R., & Roelands, B. (2017). The Effects of Mental Fatigue on Physical Performance: A Systematic Review. Sports Medicine, 47(8), 1569–1588. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40279-016-0672-0
Van Raalte, J. L., Vincent, A., & Brewer, B. W. (2017). Self-talk interventions for athletes: A theoretically grounded approach. Journal of Sport Psychology in Action, 8(3), 141–151. https://doi.org/10.1080/21520704.2016.1233921
Van Yperen, N. W. (2022). In the context of a sports match, the goal to win is most important, right? Suggestive evidence for a hierarchical achievement goal system. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 60, 102134. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2022.102134
Van Yperen, N. W., Blaga, M., & Postmes, T. (2014). A Meta-Analysis of Self-Reported Achievement Goals and Nonself-Report Performance across Three Achievement Domains (Work, Sports, and Education). PLoS ONE, 9(4), e93594. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0093594
Vitali, F., Tarperi, C., Cristini, J., Rinaldi, A., Zelli, A., Lucidi, F., Schena, F., Bortoli, L., & Robazza, C. (2019). Action Monitoring Through External or Internal Focus of Attention Does Not Impair Endurance Performance. Frontiers in Psychology, 10, 535. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.00535
Walter, N., Nikoleizig, L., & Alfermann, D. (2019). Effects of Self-Talk Training on Competitive Anxiety, Self-Efficacy, Volitional Skills, and Performance: An Intervention Study with Junior Sub-Elite Athletes. Sports, 7(6), 148. https://doi.org/10.3390/sports7060148
Weinberg, R. S., & Gould, D. (2018). Foundations of sport and exercise psychology (Seventh edition). Human Kinetics.
Westmattelmann, D., Hossiep, R., Bruckes, M., & Schewe, G. (2021). Resilience in elite sport and at work – A comparative analysis among German elite athletes and employees. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 57, 102042. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychsport.2021.102042
Williams, G. G., & MacNamara, Á. (2022). Challenge is in the eye of the beholder: Exploring young athlete’s experience of challenges on the talent pathway. Journal of Sports Sciences, 40(10), 1078–1087. https://doi.org/10.1080/02640414.2022.2047503
Yun, D., Zhang, L., & Qiu, Y. (2023). Does pregame “compulsive action” truly help athletes? Ritualized behavior enhances physical self-control. Sport, Exercise, and Performance Psychology, 12(1), 9–28. https://doi.org/10.1037/spy0000314
